EDUCATION IN HONG KONG Pre-1841 to 1941: FACT AND OPINION
Materials for a History of Education in Hong Kong
Anthony Sweeting
HONG KONG UNIVERSITY PRESS
Published by Hong Kong University Press University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
c Hong Kong University Press, 1990
All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or tramit-ted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher
ISBN 962-209-258-6
Printed in Hong Kong by Elite Printing Co. Ltd. The author and publisher wish to thank the WIDELAND FOUNDATION for its generous subsidy towards the publication costs of this book
PREFACE
The elephantine gestation period of this book has enabled a number of revisions to be made, not least to its title and chronological scope. It is now in one sense less synoptical than originally planned, because the study ends in December 1941, rather than at the present time. On the other hand, December 1941 is a very appropriate end-date. It marks the forced, if temporary, end of British-style educa-tion in the territory. The other advantages of chronological restriction include the extended opportunities it offers in the three main segments of the book: Commen-tary, Chronicle, and Evidence. In particular, it provides more room for a consid-eration of education in the Hong Kong region before the arrival of British adminis-trators, traders, and missionaries. More generally, it also provides the reason for a sequel.
Later in the book, I take the liberty to remark on a number of errors of fact and to query several interpretations contained in other publications. Correction of fact and questioning of opinion need not derive from arrogance. Here the source is an abiding interest in the Hong Kong's history of education. I, therefore, invite similar treatment with regard to the material in this book.
One of the frustrations which all writers on Hong Kong's past have to deal with concerns the romanization of Chinese proper names. Despite the apparent anomalies (e.g., seeing Hong Kong's neighbour spelled as 'Macao' in some parts of the book and 'Macau' in others), the policy which I have adopted is to reproduce the romanization used in whatever document I happen to be quoting from and, elsewhere, in Commentary and Chronicle sections, to use the forms commonly accepted in Hong Kong (including 'Hong Kong').
The number of people who have, wittingly or unwittingly, contributed to the production of this work is huge. Countless students over the past twenty years have generously provided evidence about their schools and families. Others who are uncategorizable have also offered their memories. To all of these, so numerous that they must remain nameless, I give my thanks.
A smaller number of individuals have contributed in more specific ways. As mentioned overleaf, the publication of this work owes much to Sir Q.W. Lee whose Wideland Foundation offered a generous subsidy towards the publishing costs. The staff of the Hong Kong Public Records Office, in particular Mr Ian Diamond, Ms Robyn Maclean, and Dr Choi Chee Cheung, were unfailingly help-ful in the process of searching for relevant documentary sources. The same was true of the staff of the Rhodes House Library in the Oxford University and the staff of the British Public Records Office at Kew Gardens. Ms Hora Kan Lai Fong, Dr Julian Leung Yat Ming, Mrs Winnie Lai Auyeung Yu Wing, and Ms Margaret Ng gave me valuable advice and help over translation from the Chinese. None of them should be held responsible, however, for any infelicities or inaccuracies created by me. Mr William Pang facilitated my translation of ideas into cartoons. Mr S.D. Yip permitted me to examine Queen's College's collection of historical photographs. Dr Richard Irving provided a great deal of help over the maps showing early schools in Hong Kong. Mr Johnnie C.K. Fung advised over graphics and the presentation of the original manuscript. Dr Paul Morris, Professor Brian Cooke, and Professor Dafydd Evans were generous with their time and advice concerning details, style, and organization. I am deeply indebted to them. The last named also offered freely the fruits of his own work on early Hong Kong, includ-ing a biographical index and a key to the early land-lots. These materially assisted several of my various quests. Mrs Louise Ching and Dr Renald Ching, my mother and father-in-law, provided a wealth of fascinating anecdotes, numerous docu-mentary treasures related to family history, and even more importantly, a sense of being accepted into a Hong Kong Chinese family. Most important of all, my wife and children fashioned the environment and exercised the patience which enabled the work to be completed.
Anthony Sweeting
Hong Kong, 1989
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In a book which is so dependent upon the display of hard evidence, the right to reproduce extracts from a range of information sources was indispensable. I am very happy to acknowledge and record my debt. Almost invariably, requests for permission to quote from published works or from tape-recorded interviews received immediate approval. I name these sources with gratitude and pride below.
All other quotations in the book are taken from what I believe to be the public domain. If I have unwittingly impinged upon anyone's copyright, I apologize unreservedly and would attempt to explain my error by claiming that it was committed in an enthusiasm for truth and history.
Thanks are therefore extended to the following (listed alphabetically):
Miss Kay Barker; Dr Alan Birch; Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong; Chinese University Press, Hong Kong; Dr Renald and Mrs Louise Ching; Brigadier Hilary Cree; Diocesan Boys School; Professor Dafydd E.M. Evans; Dr Davis Faure; Mr Fong Mee Yin; Mr Norman Gillanders, Registrar of the University of Hong Kong; Mr Timothy Ha; Dr James Hayes; Hong Kong Government Information Services; Mr Rufus Huang; Mr Ip Shing Dock;
Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society; Journal of Education, University of Hong Kong; Mr Patrick Lau; DrK.S.Lo; Dr Bernard H.K. Luk; Dr Bernard Mellor; National Maritime Museum, Greenwich; Mrs Alice Ng Lun Ngai-ha; Oxford University Press (Hong Kong); Mr William Pang; Public Records Office, Hong Kong; Public Records Office, Kew Gardens;
Queen's College; Rhodes House, Oxford University; Dr Elizabeth Sinn; Rev. Carl Smith; St. Paul's College; St. Paul's Convent School; St. Stephen's Girls' College; Mr John Stokes and Mrs Gwynneth Stokes; Tung Wah Group of Hospitals; Wah Yan College; Ying Wa College; Ying Wah Girls College.
CONTENTS
Preface Vll Acknowledgements ix Chapter One Introduction 1 Chapter Two Education in Pre-Colonial Hong Kong 7-1841/1860/1898 87 Chapter Three Variations on a Missionary Theme 1841-65 139 Chapter Four Consolidation, Conflict and Control 1865-1913 195 Chapter Five Enlargement and Vernacularization 1914-41 341 Bibliography 479 Index 491
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
COMMENTARY
Fact and opinion serve as the Yin and Yang of Education in Hong Kong, at least as far as its historical development is concerned. Like the ancient Chinese symbols, educational fact and opinion have persistently interacted to complement each other. This interaction produces at any given time the characteristic, often conten-tious, and invariably concerned mood adopted by participants and observers towards educational matters in Hong Kong.
The mutual dependence of fact and opinion, their symbiotic relationship in the history of education in Hong Kong, could be emphasized by the coining of tra-ditional sounding aphorisms. 'Fact without opinion is dry dust: opinion without fact is hot air'; or, more positively, 'Facts provide the fuel for educational develop-ment; opinions provide the spark'. And one could quote many examples to sub-stantiate these general laws. Even the most basic 'facts' about schooling, such as enrolment figures for the different ethnic groups, social classes or genders, require an understanding of opinions and attitudes before they can make worthwhile sense. Reports of more informal educational activity, such as discussion groups, concerts, games, museum exhibitions, and different types of clubs or associations need to be supplemented and thus, informed by an awareness of the feelings and viewpoints which led to these encounters and those which were provoked by them.
Hong Kong's geographical position has contributed to the importance of extraneous factors in the shaping of the local educational milieu. The operation of these extraneous factors may be detected most clearly and easily in Hong Kong's post-1841 history — particularly in relation to the influx of people and ideas from the Chinese mainland and elsewhere. One may, however, extrapolate that outside influences had significant impact even in the pre-Chinese and very early Chinese periods.1 There can be little doubt that these influences were the outcome of a combination of fact and opinion.
1. For further details about the earliest periods in the history of the Hong Kong region, see Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Its External Communications before 1842: The History of Hong Kong prior to the British Arrival (Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Culture, 1963); Sung Hok P'ang, 'Legends and Stories of the New Territories Kam Tin', reprinted from The Hong Kong Naturalist 6-8 (1935-38) in the Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 13 (1973), 110-32, and 14 (1974), 160-85; S.F. Balfour, 'Hong Kong before the British', reprinted from Tien Hsia Monthly (Shanghai) 11-12 (1940-41) in theJournal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 10 (1970), 134-79; K.M.A. Barnett, Hong Kong before the Chinese: The Frame, The Puzzle and The Missing Pieces' (a lecture delivered on 18 November 1963),
This does not mean that all educational development resulted from the inter-play of extraneous factors, or that the local situation was some sort of 'tabula rasa' on which only newcomers made their mark or messages appeared by some type of remote control. In pre-British Hong Kong, as in other parts of the Chinese Empire, local initiative, as well as the energies of visiting officials, stimulated the establish-ment of schools and other educational activities, centuries before the arrival of the British. For post-1841 Hong Kong, one does not have to espouse an explanation of educational development via the concept of colonialism, in its guise of cultural imperialism.2
It is true that there are certain 'facts' which seem to emphasize the importance of Hong Kong's colonial status. In the early years of Hong Kong's existence as a colony, a Governor requested Colonial Office permission to offer financial assis-tance to local schools.3 A later Governor called an 'Education Conference' which, under his direct influence, concluded that 'political and commercial considera-tions rendered the study of English of primary importance in all Government schools'.4 Over thirty years later, an 'Education Committee' proclaimed that 'bet-ter results will be obtained by assisting to enlighten the ignorance of the upper classes of Chinese than by attempting to force new ideas on the mass of the people. Civilized ideas among the leaders of thought are the best and perhaps the only means at present available for permeating the general ignorance.. .'5 Each of these facts, no matter how congruent with the interpretations of Carnoy, Altbach and Kelly et ah, needs to be balanced with an understanding of opinions as well as circumstances. The early Government assistance to local schools was a deliberate alternative to subsidizing the missionary schools and was officially designed to avoid interfering with local customs and beliefs. The Governor who called the Education Conference believed, with some justification, that he was acting in the interests of the local Chinese who were fully convinced of the value of learning English. To the dismay of many upwardly-mobile Chinese, the Inspector of Schools had been insisting that Chinese pupils of the principal Government school possess a strong foundation in Chinese language and culture!6 The Education Committee's
Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 4 (1964), 42-67; Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County: A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univer-sity Press, 1983). For some specific references to educational developments in this early period, see Chapter 2 below.
2.
The 'classic' exposition of this interpretation is to be found in Martin Carnoy, Education as Cultural Imperialism (New York: McKay, 1974). P.G. Altbach and G.P. Kelly (eds.), Education and the Colonial Experience, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, U.S.A.: Transaction Books, 1984) offers quite detailed comparative perspectives from a similar viewpoint.
3.
For further details, see the Chronicle for 1845,1847 and 1848 in Chapter 3.
4.
See the Chronicle for 1878 and Evidence 4(c) in Chapter 4 .
5.
See the Chronicle for 1901,1902 and 1903, as well as Evidence 16 and 17(a) in Chapter 4 .
6.
See Evidence 1(a), 1(b) and especially 1(d), as well as Evidence 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) in Chapter 4.
INTRODUCTION
argument in favour of elitist education was rejected by the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, who declared that 'certainly it would need very strong grounds to justify withholding Government assistance from Vernacular education in a large native community such as exists in Hong Kong, thereby presumably excluding the very poorest from the benefits of education'.7 Missionaries may have sounded at times dismissive of traditional Chinese education and culture, but many of them worked hard and sincerely in what they considered to be the interests of the Chinese, perhaps most notably in the field of female education; and some of them respected the culture sufficiently to become distinguished sino-logues. There can be little doubt, then, that the crude and simplistic 'colonialistic' interpretation of educational development in Hong Kong cannot encompass the whole of the situation.
This is reinforced by a further set of facts and opinions. It is important to remember that both prior to and contemporary with colonial (if not colonialist) education in Hong Kong, there were Chinese educational enterprises. Some of these were survivals of the traditional village schools, temple schools, study halls, other tutorial institutions and colleges. By the late nineteenth century, some were influenced by the Self-strengthening Movement and by pressures for reform or even revolution in China. At the same time, successful individuals and voluntary associations, recognizing their responsibilities as 'noble' or 'superior' men (and later women), opened schools for poor children in Hong Kong. And the various influxes of population into Hong Kong, provoked by disturbances in China, invariably included aspiring teachers ready to set up school, often in the sense of setting up shop. For almost the whole of the pre-1941 period of Hong Kong's history, these Chinese schools received little or no assistance from 'the Govern-ment', whether this term refers to the Chinese Imperial Government, the Provin-cial Government, the Government of the Chinese Republic, the Hong Kong Gov-ernment or the British Government. The reason for this has as much to do with a desire, at the periphery, to escape control from the centre, as it has to do with disdain or discrimination from the centre. Avoiding the attention of inspectors is a strong predisposition in Hong Kong, perhaps the obverse side to Hong Kong initiative and enterprise. It is undeniably based upon both fact and opinion.
There are occasions in the history of education in Hong Kong when fact and opinion seem to be confused. At times, a spokesman conveys facts as if they were an assertion of his original opinion, presumably to add weight and stature to his public image. More frequently, opinions are disguised as unchallengeable fact. If they are corroborated at all, it is with the flimsiest of factual backing. In this particular respect, there is nothing unique or even special in education or in Hong Kong. What is special to Education in Hong Kong is the further confounding of the confusion between fact and opinion by commentators. Far too often, a reader of the limited literature about education in Hong Kong discovers that the author has intruded his or her own opinions and assumptions, or has unconsciously reflected the prejudices of the time.
7. See Evidence 17(a) in Chapter 4 .
At the present time, the imminent change in Hong Kong's constitutional status may well stimulate an interest in Hong Kong's past. Educational matters have always been regarded as important and have often been seen to be controver-sial. Unresolved issues persist. As an essential preliminary to in-depth discussion about past, present and future educational concerns, what appears to be keenly needed is the collection, collation and production of authentic 'materials', based on a firm chronology with the compiler, editor and author at least attempting to eschew persuasion. The collection and creation of such materials would seem to be a pre-requisite to a more rigorous examination of the history of education in Hong Kong.
The expression 'Materials for a History of Education in Hong Kong' is itself an historic one. Dr E.J. Eitel used it as the title for two articles which he wrote in 1891.8 Of German origin, Eitel was the Inspector of Schools in Hong Kong from 1878 to 1897. He was also an ex-missionary, a sinologue and local historian of note.9 He possessed, therefore, personal knowledge, access to a range of sources and skills relevant to the task of assembling and commenting upon materials for a history of education in Hong Kong. The numerous controversies punctuating his career may help to explain the disclaimer, which he inserted at the beginning of his first article, that he had 'no further aim on this occasion beyond putting together desultory fragments of information on the subject which he has so far been able to collect.'10 Although the disclaimer might well have been disingenuous, the collec-tion of facts and opinions which Eitel produced has certainly merited very serious and respectful consideration by all later historians of education in Hong Kong. Regrettably, there have been few historians of education in Hong Kong to succeed him; some of these have failed to build upon the foundations which he laid. The present publication, therefore, attempts to follow largely in the tradition which Eitel established, its principal function being similar to that which he sketched for himself in 1891:
If anyone better qualified will some day undertake the task of writing a pragmatic history of local education, he may find this collection of mate-rials of considerable help, for, as the years pass by, the sources of informa-
8.
E.J. Eitel, 'Materials for a History of Education in Hong Kong', The China Review XIX (5X1890-91), 308-24; XIX (6X1890-91), 335-68. The China Review was a missionary journal, which Eitel also edited.
9.
For a summary and appraisal of Eitel's life and work, especially his general history of Hong Kong, see G.B. Endacott, 'A Hong Kong History: Europe in China, by E.J. Eitel — The Man and the Book', Journal of Oriental Studies IV (l-2)(1957/58)(Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong); and H.J. Lethbridge, 'Introduction' to E.J. Eitel, Europe in China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. v-xiv.
10.
Eitel, E.J., 'Materials for a History of Education in Hong Kong', The China Review XIX (5), 308.
INTRODUCTION
tion as to the earlier decades of our local history become less accessible
and less intelligible.11
The wholesale destruction of documents during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong (December 1941-August 1945) has strengthened Eitel's argument. Towards and beyond 1997, the motivation for producing a 'pragmatic history of local education' may well diminish to the extent that identity with China increases. The compilation of materials for a new history of education in Hong Kong could, therefore, serve to prolong the life of evidence, which might otherwise be ne-glected, about issues which continue to concern many readers.
Eitel's 'Materials' concentrated upon the years 1841*-77.12 The nature of the sources open to him encouraged an emphasis upon the activities of committees, details of the founding, staffing and closing of various institutions, public state-ments about educational policy, and estimates of expenditure upon schools, fo-cused most sharply upon the endeavours of European administrators and mis-sionaries in Hong Kong itself. The scope of Eitel's work may thus be adjudged by the standards of the later twentieth century as parochial, colonialistic and pre-dominantly institutional. He did not, however, entirely ignore the educational activities of the local and immigrant Chinese; taking pains, for example, to dispel the myth that there were no schools in Hong Kong before the arrival of the British.13 Neither did he totally neglect to point out the influence of developments elsewhere (especially in Britain) on policies and attitudes towards education in Hong Kong. Although it is clear that he never had access to official documents marked 'Confidential', he utilized those sources which were at his disposal to create a coherent and largely accurate chronicle. His lengthy quotations from and detailed references to these sources certainly added to the value of his chronicle. Moreover, by making the effort to detect and discuss trends (in the fortunes of
11.
Ibid.
12.
Some commentary is, however, provided about the situation before 1841 (Eitel, op. cit.,
p. 309) and about the years 1878-90 (pp. 367-68).
13. Eitel, op. cit., p. 309 (also see Evidence 1 in this chapter). Unfortunately, this myth (possibly as a function of the strength of colonialist attitudes) has been particularly persis-tent, one of its latest manifestations being contained in Fung Yee-Wang, The Development of Education in Hong Kong', in Joseph Cheng (ed.), Hong Kong in Transition (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 300-301. The defence that Fung referred only to formal schools on Hong Kong Island is unconvincing, especially in the light of the details provided by Eitel, as well as the more general remarks about traditional schools in Alice Ng, Tradi-tional Education in Rural Hong Kong', and Bernard Luk, Traditional Education in Urban Hong Kong', presented in the Conference on Hong Kong History and Society in Change (1981), and in Sally Borthwick, Education and Social Change in China: The Beginnings of the Modern Era (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1983), pp. 14-37. First-hand evidence that a few weeks after the first official landing by British forces, there were schools on Hong Kong Island, which actually resembled the village schools of England, is provided by the naval surgeon, Edward Cree. See Chapter 3, Evidence 1(a).
nussionary as opposed to secularist education, for example) he produced a work which transcends antiquarianism and provides tools for the analysis and compari-son of Hong Kong's educational developments.
In one sense, the present publication is an updating of Eitel's work. Indeed, an alternative title (which was actually for a time its working title) is: 'Materials for a New History of Education in Hong Kong7. It aspires to emulate the strengths and fulfil at least some of the purposes of the earlier work, as well as to adopt its basic structure. A strong case can be made, however, not merely for a new collection of materials, but also for the compilation of materials which could contribute to a new approach to the history of education in the territory. This case is founded upon a number of distinct factors.
The first and most obvious factor concerns older approaches to the history of education in Hong Kong and, especially, the published manifestations of these approaches. As mentioned above, the field is not noted for its fertility or for the healthy profusion and rivalry of its products. Therefore, there have been few substantial contributions to knowledge. Conspicuous amongst these few are the works of Eitel himself, T.C. Cheng14 and Alice Ng Lun Ngai-ha.15 Even these, how-ever, either because of their declared focus of interest or because of their date of publication, do not provide a synthesis of educational developments in Hong Kong from early times to the present. This is true whether they are read separately or in conjunction with each other. Several local historians, anthropologists and so-ciologists over different generations offer fascinating clues and provocative hints in the more or less passing references which their general works make to educa-tion.16 Valuable information may also be culled from various biographies and
14.
See especially, T.C. Cheng, The Education of Overseas Chinese — A Comparative Study of Hong Kong Singapore and the East Indies', unpublished M. A. thesis, University of London, 1949.
15.
See especially, Alice Lun Ngai-ha, 'Educational Policy and the Public Response in Hong Kong 1842-1913', unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Hong Kong, 1967; Ng Lun Ngai-ha, Development of Government Education for the Chinese in Hong Kong', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1976; and Ng Lun Ngai-ha, Interactions of East and West: Development of Public Education in Early Hong Kong (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1984).
16.
For example, see, J. Agassi and I.C. Jarvie, Hong Kong: A Society in Transition (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969); Hugh D.R. Baker, A Chinese Lineage Village: Sheung Shui (London: Frank Cass, 1968); G.B. Endacott, A History of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1958), G.B. Endacott, Government and People in Hong Kong, 1841-1962 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1964), G.B. Endacott, Hong Kong Eclipse (edited and with additional material by Alan BirchXHong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978); D. Faure, The Structure of Chinese Rural Society: Lineage and Village in the Eastern New Territories (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1986); M. Freedman, 'A Report on Social Research in the New Territories of Hong Kong 1963' (mimeo., 1963), reprinted in Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 16 (1976), 191-261; M. Freedman, The Rural Communi-ties of Hong Kong: Studies and Themes (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1983); M. Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: The Athlone Press,
INTRODUCTION
autobiographies.17 As could be expected, however, neither the general nor the personal histories produce a sufficiently specific view of education in the territory. Several other publications, which certainly do concern themselves specifically with education in Hong Kong, have relied upon too restricted a range of source material or have been hastily put together without regard for rigorous standards of scholarship. As a result, works which contain much worthwhile material are marred with anachronisms, proof-reading errors and similar (or worse) inaccura-cies. Three examples are offered to substantiate this criticism.
Thus, the delightfully illustrated if somewhat floridly written, Asile de la Sainte Enfance.. .at Hong Kong, Monography, published from Chartres in 1910, contains a clear implication about a decision said to have faced the first Sisters of the 'French Convent' to come to Hong Kong. This was whether they should, in 1848, take the shorter and faster route from Europe to Hong Kong via the Suez Canal or the more economical one around the Cape of Good Hope. It is accurately reported that the Sisters proceeded from Chartres to London and then underwent the four month voyage from London to Hong Kong via the Cape. An adjoining picture shows angels protecting them on the long journey.18 The authors of the Monography, in their enthusiasm about these pioneers, had clearly forgotten that the Suez Canal was not opened until 1869.
More importantly, Queen's College 1862-1962, a mine of information about Hong Kong's premier Government-maintained secondary school, with a rich vein of anecdotes and comments about its teachers, pupils and curriculum, contains an apparently coherent and logically consistent but actually misleading passage about early policy concerning religious education. The passage reads:
In 1847 the Governor, Sir John Davis Bart, with the approval of Lord Grey, Secretary of State for the Colonies, made grants of $10 monthly to each of three Confucian village schools — those at Tai Ping Shan, Stanley
1966); J. Hayes, The Hong Kong Region 1850-1911: Institutions and Leadership in Town and Countryside (Hamden: Archon Books, 1977); H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978); G.R. Sayer, Hong Kong 1841-1862: Birth, Adolescence and Coming of Age (reprint of the 1937 OUP edition, with new Introduction and Additional Notes by D.M. Emrys Evans)(Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1980);
G.R. Sayer, Hong Kong 1862-1919 (edited with additional notes by D.M. Emrys Evans)(Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1975); C.T. Smith, Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen, and the Church in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1985); M. Topley (ed.), Hong Kong: The Interaction of Traditions and Life in the Towns (Hong Kong: Royal Asiatic Society, Hong Kong Branch, 1975).
17.
For example, Irene Cheng, Clara Ho Tung: A Hong Kong Lady, Her Family and Her Times (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1976); G.H. Choa, The Life and Times of Sir Kai Ho Kai (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1981); D.M. Paton, 'R.O.': The Life and Times of Bishop Hall of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: The Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao and the Hong Kong Diocesan Association, 1985).
18.
Asile de la Sainte Enfance, French Convent, directed by the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres, at Hong Kong, Monography (Chartres, 1910), p. 9. See also Evidence 2 in this chapter.
and Aberdeen — whose teachers had promised to give some religious instruction to their pupils. It seems clear that the real aim in making the grants was to attempt to convert the Chinese to Christianity. Instructions issued to the teachers included the following: 'On opening the School in the morning, the master must repeat in the presence of their [sic] as-sembled Scholars a prayer to God for assistance in the labour of the day... On Sundays the Scholars will be instructed in the Bible and religious books only/ But the Treaty of Nanking had stipulated that the British would not interfere with local customs and beliefs. In view of this fact, the religious instruction upon which the grant depended was — in theory — not to be compulsory and was not to be given to a child whose parents disapproved. In fact, a parent who disapproved was to be 'admonished and exhorted'. He was to be informed that the Christian religion was of eastern origin. If disapproval persisted after admonishment and exhorta-tion, the child was to be 'turned away7 from the school.19
This account oversimplifies the 'religious question' in Hong Kong to an alarming extent. More importantly, it is based upon a significant misquotation. As might be expected at a time when the controversy about public aid to sectarian education still raged in England, there were officials in Hong Kong who disapproved of using Government grants 'to attempt to convert the Chinese to Christianity7. Prominent among these was Colonel William Caine, the Colonial Secretary, who wrote on 7 November 1847 that 'care must be taken to impress upon the minds of the parents of the students that no interference is to be permitted with their religious prejudices, such being the terms on which the contribution [of $10 a month for each School] is to be made'.20 Furthermore, the text of the Instructions for the Teachers of Government Schools differs from that quoted above. The Rev.
W. Lobscheid, who described himself (accurately) as 'Missionary and Inspector of Government Schools' in his 1859 publication, A Few Notices on the Extent of Chinese Education and the Government Schools of Hong Kong, with Remarks on the History and
19.
The first appearance of this claim is in G.G. Stokes, Queen's College 1862-1962 (Hong Kong: Queen's College, 1962), p. 9. It also appears, uncorrected in Gwenneth and John Stokes, Queen's College: Its History, 1862-1987 (Hong Kong: Queen's College Old Boys' Association, 1987), p. 3.
20.
Quoted in Eitel, op. cit., p. 314. The Colonial Chaplain, the Rev. V. Stanton, wrote to Caine on 9 December 1847, 'I understand the objections which lie against the grant of Government aid to be these two; the supposed pecuniary resources of the parents of the pupils, and the differences of religious belief... The Church Catechism is the only part of our course which has been objected to, and in such cases other books have been substituted which have proved satisfactory to all parties.' (CO 129/21, pp. 352 and 354). The Hong Kong Government's Blue Book for 1850 also includes, as part of the Education Committee's Report, the following comment: 'Christian books have been introduced into all the schools, but it is not compulsory on the scholars to learn them. If the parents object, the course of study is confined to native reading.' (Hong Kong Government, Blue Book 1850, p. 173).
INTRODUCTION
9
Religious Notions of the Inhabitants of the Island, displays the full text of the Instruc-tions. These include:
If the parents of any Scholar object to his reading the Bible, then the Master should explain the great benefit of acquiring the knowledge which this book teaches, and should inform them that this religion is not a foreign religion, that it did not originate in England, but in the East, and is common to all the world, having been given by our common father, God. If they still object, then the boy may be excused from reading it: he must not be turned away from the school, but his parents should be from time to time admonished, and then perhaps they will allow their children to be instructed in this book, which contains nothing but what is truly good.21
The spirit of this instruction is congruent with the official views in England at the time; interestingly enough it foreshadows the 'conscience clause' of the Bill origi-nally presented to the House of Commons which, after amendment, became the 1870 Forster Act.22
The third example of an inaccuracy occasioned by an older approach to the history of education in Hong Kong is a simple one; it probably involves little more than careless reading of sources, caused by the pressure of day-to-day work. However, it may reveal a lack of concern for the field. In his T-Iong Kong' contribu-tion to Educational Systems of the Chief Crown Colonies and Possessions of the British Empire including Reports of the Training of Native Races, E.A. Irving, then Inspector of Schools and about to become Hong Kong's first Director of Education, made the mistake of claiming that James Legge was the founder of 'the Morrison School'.23 As might have been expected and as sources available in living's time show, this school (the first to be established by Europeans in Hong Kong) was founded by the Morrison Education Society, having been transferred from Macau to Hong Kong in November 1942. Its first principal was an American, the Rev. S.R. Brown. As will be seen in the appropriate chapters, James Legge was a very active and influential educator in Hong Kong; he was first known as the Headmaster who transferred the Anglo-Chinese College or 'Ying Wa' from Malacca, briefly via
21.
Lobscheid, A Few Notices on the Extent of Chinese Education and the Government Schools of Hong Kong, with Remarks on the History and Religious Notions of the Inhabitants of the Island (Hong Kong, printed at the China Mail Office, 1859), pp. 24-25. The text of the regulations also suggests that Stokes' supercilious [sic] in reference to the schoolmaster(s) in the presence of assembled pupils is gratuitous and unjustified, based presumably either upon a proof-reading error or a clumsy transposition from her own notes.
22.
H.C. Dent, 1870-1970: Century of Growth in English Education (London: Longman, 1970), p. 10.
23.
See Great Britain Board of Education, Educational Systems of the Chief Crown Colonies and Possessions of the British Empire including Reports on the Training of Native Races (London: H.M.S.O., 1905), p. 63. Irving's precise words are: The Morrison school was founded by the late the Rev. Dr. James Legge, subsequently famous throughout China for his edition of the classics, and late professor of Chinese at Oxford.'
Macau, to Hong Kong in May 1843. The gravity of Irving's error is not particularly great. It is rather disturbing, however, that it was repeated in later publications both by himself and by his successors. The post-Second World War Director of Education, T.R. Rowell, made publicity for himself by preparing a talk on the history of education in Hong Kong. His preparation was not rigorous enough to identify and remove this simple mistake. It appears again in the Annual Report of the Education Department for 1948-49, was repeated in the Annual Report of the Director of Education for the Financial Year 1952-53, and was reinforced in the Education Department's Triennial Survey for 1958-61. Perhaps the time is ripe for the Education Department to produce a revised version of the Tiistorical' section of its reports, more attune to what is known about the facts and opinions of the time.
Another manifestation of an older approach to past educational policies, personnel and institutions may be seen in polemical literature. At various times in the past, individuals or groups have taken the opportunity to publish strongly held views about education. The strength of their conviction and the eloquence of their advocacy may not, however, have been matched by a determination to explain the historical genesis of the controversy or problem either impartially or fully. This characteristic tends to apply even (perhaps, especially) when such a publication purports to provide an historical background. Thus, Dates and Events connected with the History of Education in Hong Kong, an anonymous pamphlet published in 187724 (though in title an innocuous and antiquarian compilation) is really a skilful piece of special pleading on behalf of the Catholic schools, in protest against the then current secularist policy and in favour of a revision to the Grant Code. Consequently, its actual dates and events are carefully selected. More recently, At What Cost?, a vigorously argued 'report for the public' on 'instruction through the English medium in Hong Kong schools', made claims to establish 'a historical perspective' on language-educational policy in Hong Kong'. Unfortunately, its heavy reliance upon secondary sources, especially for the early part of the survey, detracts from its accuracy and comprehensiveness.25
24.
Dates and Events (1857-1877) connected with the History of Education in Hong Kong (printed at the St. Lewis Reformatory, 1877). It might be noted that another anonymous pamphlet — The Central School: Can It Justify Its Raison d'Etre? — was published in the same year. The Special Collections Room of the Hong Kong University Library attributes this latter pam-phlet almost certainly spuriously to E.J. Eitel. Eitel himself refers to the pamphlet as 'probably by the same writer' as the 'Roman Catholic author' of Dates and Events ... (Eitel, 'Materials for a History of Education in Hong Kong', The China Review XIX (6), 367). Eitel is probably correct about this, a prime candidate for the authorship being J.J. Francis, a leading Catholic barrister of the time and no stranger to controversy. See also Chapter 4, f .n. 49.
25.
Cheng Ngai Lung, Shek Kang Chuen, Tse Ka Kui and Wong Siu Lun, At What Cost? Instruction through the English Medium in Hong Kong Schools (June 1973), pp. 13-27. The pamphlet's use of historical sources is, to say the least, selective. It asserts quite correctly, for example, that in 1866 the study of English was made obligatory in the Central School
INTRODUCTION
11
The foregoing paragraphs indicate that the compilation and creation of mate-rials for a new history of education in Hong Kong, incorporating a new approach to the subject area, may be justified by reference to previously published work on education in Hong Kong. A radically new approach to the history of education is also suggested, in the more general academic context, by the advocacy of such committed scholars as Brian Simon, David Tyack and Harold Silver.26 They point to the inadequacies of narrowly institution-based accounts which often concen-trate myopically upon declared government policy. As an alternative perspective, Simon, Tyack and Silver emphasize the importance of the 'client' in the educa-tional enterprise and of the force of 'opinion' in the formulation and implementa-tion of policy. In this respect, they make out a cogent argument in favour of a 'social history of education'. Such a history necessarily includes consideration of the informal agencies of education in any society and of formally sanctioned schools. It incorporates a study of the 'hidden curriculum' and official syllabus statements. It entails attempts to make connections between education and other socio-economic phenomena. It explores many questions: how people in the past constructed the meaning of the terms they used (especially in discourse about education), why certain issues have become defined as problems at certain times and who is responsible for these definitions. It is particularly wary of explanatory stances which presuppose that everything of importance in educational develop-ment originated from an administrative 'centre' and a hierarchical 'top' and is then transmitted downwards more or less effectively to peripheral subordinates. More positively, it takes advantage of social science methodology, including surveys and case-studies, without sacrificing the historian's more customary recourse to imaginative reconstruction. As Silver points out:
If all history is imaginative reconstruction, then the historian must constantly re-invent the answer-back. This does not mean to ventriloquize
— quite the opposite. It means that the historian needs to listen to the reso-nance of his own and others' attempted descriptions and explanations, and must allow historical sources to respond and disturb and upset them. It means a constant effort to lower the historian's own voice and the stridency of his own time. It means a constant diminution of his sense of knowing the outcome, of the arrogance of his own judgement after the
under Frederick Stewart, without also noting Frederick Stewart's sincere and consistently held belief in the importance of the study of Chinese. In this way, the pamphlet is able to adopt a crude anti-colonialist stance which neglects to recognize that Stewart sought equal treatment for the two languages and, as late as 1878, in the face of Governor Hennessy's clear preference for making Chinese studies optional, voted for a proposal to make Chinese compulsory at the Central School. See Chapter 4, Evidence 1(d) and 4(c).
26. For example, in Brian Simon, Studies in the History of Education (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1960); David B. Tyack, Ways of Seeing: An Essay on the History of Compulsory Schooling', Harvard Educational Review LXVI (1976); and Harold Silver, Education as History (London: Methuen, 1983).
event. However unsatisfactory the conversation, it has to take place — in order to treat evidence as elusive and unreliable and the opposite of the inert — within the controlling, changing and growing imagination of the historian.27
In and about Hong Kong to date, there has been little attempt to create a social history of education of this type. As yet, there has been no attempt to prepare a social history of education in Hong Kong which also offers a synopsis of develop-ments from pre-colonial to post-colonial times. The present work is, at least in intention, an effort to gather together some of the raw materials for such an endeavour so that the reader may become his own historian.
The objective that the reader become his own historian is in one sense a humble one; in another sense, it is very ambitious. It has the added attraction of being consistent with the rationale behind several quite modern curriculum devel-opments in History. The 'New History7 movement, which has been so influential over curriculum planning in the subject since the 1960s (especially in the United States and Britain) is based on the aspiration to introduce students to the skills of historians, the tools and processes of their work, through direct contact with primary sources.28 It would seem particularly appropriate that teachers, student teachers, teacher educators and interested others should gain access to evidence about the history of education in the same spirit. For this reason, the intentions of the current publication may be interpreted as the presentation of materials for a new history of education in Hong Kong.
The methodology of new history and the goals of a social history of education have certainly influenced the structure and scope of the present work. As will be seen, each chapter is divided into three segments: Commentary, Chronicle and Evidence. The Commentary aims to inform and thereby facilitate dialogue be-tween the reader and the evidence, often by suggesting questions rather than by pontificating about answers. It does not aim to interfere in such a conversation by presuming to present and insist upon a set of value-judgements, especially in the form of pre-determined and exclusive themes. Similarly, the Chronicle is designed to serve as a convenient repository of chronological data about developments in formal and informal education in Hong Kong, plus information which may en-courage comparative judgements. In this way, the Chronicle is intended to con-tribute towards the reader's own achievement of a synoptical view of these devel-opments and, within this view, towards the reader's own detection of significant trends. The Evidence has been selected to add substance and hopefully a sense of
27.
H. Silver, op. cit., pp. 298-99.
28.
For a fuller discussion of the rationale and methodology of the New History movement see, for example: Schools Council History Project, A New Look at History (London: Holmes McDougal, 1976); PJ. Rogers, The New History: Theory into Practice (London: Historical Asso-ciation (TH44), 1978); Gareth Jones and Lionel Ward (eds.), New History Old Problems: Studies in History Teaching (Swansea: University College of Swansea, Faculty of Education, 1978); D.J. Shemilt, History 13-16, Evaluation Study (London: Holmes McDougal, 1980).
INTRODUCTION
the 'spice' of educational undertakings in Hong Kong over many generations. Much of the Evidence has been extracted from primary sources. The range of primary sources is deliberately somewhat promiscuous and quite extensive, in-cluding official government archives, school and family records, more ephemeral materials such as newspaper articles and diaries, statistical surveys, copies of paintings or photographs, and, when possible, transcripts of interviews. Some of the Evidence, however, is extracted from secondary sources. These include the after-thoughts of participants, published histories and the work of sociologists and anthropologists. And a third type of Evidence has been edited or even 'concocted' especially for the book, but with reference to the most reliable source-base that could be found.29 If any of this Evidence encourages readers to seek other sources of information and ideas about education in Hong Kong, it will have achieved a most important purpose. Extracts from primary and secondary sources will prop-erly attain the status of 'evidence' only if they are recognized as providing answers to questions or clues to the solution of mysteries. Some of the questions will be indicated in the Commentary.30 Others may be provoked by the Chronicle. To-gether the three segments may suggest further enquiries for each is attempting to use a 'pointillist' technique in order to offer pointers. The cumulative impact on
29.
Thus some of the tables in this and other chapters are revised versions of material edited from official statistical digests. The charts (based on official statistics) are in the design-sense 'originals'. The same is true of the maps. And most of the cartoons were dreamt up by the present author but executed by an understanding and very patient draughtsman, Mr William Pang Ching Wah.
30.
They will usually be found at the end of each Commentary section. For this Introductory Commentary, however, they have only been implied in the text. At this stage, readers may wish to consider the three basic questions posed by historians — What? How? Why? — and how these may be fruitfully applied to the history of education in Hong Kong.
The explicit general questions which befit an introductory commentary include:
* What was education like in Hong Kong? — at various different times? What was the
curriculum? What were the principal characteristics of students and teachers? What
relevant comparisons can be made with other societies?
* How did this situation come about? How did it develop? How were these develop-
ments related to 'forces' from within and from outside the local educational scene?
* Why did the situation develop in these ways? Why did aspects internal to the situation
influence it in the way which they did? Why did influences from outside the local edu-
cational scene influence developments?
The period is so long that a list of more explicit questions, which the various extracts
from sources included in this Introduction may be seen to answer, would probably appear to be too prescriptive and insufficiently informative when considered outside a more detailed context. Readers may, however, wish to consider what insight the various extracts may provide about attitudes towards schooling, conditions of learning and teaching, changes (if any) to the curriculum and to opportunities for informal education and the status and role of teachers and pupils. Alternatively, the pieces of evidence may well provoke their own more specific questions.
many readers may well be a sense of deja vu, for references to such features of the educational environment in Hong Kong as the lack of space, the excess of noise, the overriding importance of examinations and the undermining influence of uncertainty about language may be seen to be common and recurrent in all periods.
There will probably be at least as many uses of this book as there are readers. Near the outset, however, readers may wish to note the existence of several features designed to enhance the book's usefulness while not conflicting with its rationale. The index has been organized in such a way as to facilitate the recogni-tion of possible trends and themes, without forcing them on the reader. Thus the entry for 'colonialism' contains references to facts and opinions which may sup-port theories of cultural imperialism and references to facts and opinions which may suggest qualification and modification of the simple, exploitation-model explanation of educational developments in Hong Kong. Similarly, questions outlined in Commentary sections of the book are intended to provoke thought about trends and themes, not to conclude the thinking. The quite copious foot-notes may irritate some readers. They provide, however, a subsidiary level of facts and opinions and contribute to the encouragement of further searches, beyond the covers of this book as well as cross-referencing within it. They were created with the latter purposes in mind! Illustrations have been included, not primarily for their aesthetic effect (although they must have some, positive or negative), but to serve as Evidence. As will be seen, some illustrations provide evidence of fact. Tables, graphs and photographs often offer insight in this direction. Other illustra-tions provide evidence of opinion. Caricatures and other types of cartoons tend to clarify polemics. Some illustrations may be used as evidence about the combina-tion of fact and opinion. Even the cover of this book was designed to play a minor role in this capacity. If both the cover and its contents contribute towards the clarification of fact and opinion about education in Hong Kong over a quite lengthy historical period, they will have performed a very useful purpose. Espe-cially with regard to this last point, Eitel's 1891 peroration remains apposite:
In conclusion we would urge upon all local Educationists the impor-tance of a careful study of the course which education has so far run in Hong Kong. If we ignore the past, we cannot understand the present nor forecast the future.'31
Indeed, without such a study, fact and opinion about education in Hong Kong becomes absorbed by an indiscriminating miscellany of fact and fiction.
31.Eitel,op.cit.,p.368.
INTRODUCTION
CHRONICLE
7-1841/1860/1898: Education in pre-colonial Hong Kong.
1841-1865: Variations on a missionary theme.
1865-1913: Consolidation, conflict, and control.
1914-1941: Enlargement and vernacularization.
Periodization is an artificial construct, merely an historian's convenience; with regard to the history of education in Hong Kong as with other types of history about other societies, few beginning- or end-dates can be put forward with total confidence. As the more detailed chronicles below will evince, many educational developments fail to respect perceptions of periods. The chronicles may help to show why the specific dates have been chosen as significant ones, if not as 'turning points', then as possible 'sign-posts' to or 'mile-stones' of change.
EVIDENCE
1. E.J. Eitel, 'Materials for a History of Education in Hong Kong', The China Review XIX (5X1891), 309-10.
This extract has been taken from near the beginning of the first ofEiteVs two essays on education in Hong Kong. It offers evidence about his general tone, structure and approach. It also includes an unequivocal statement about the existence of schools on Hong Kong Island for 'at least a century' before its occupation by the British.
Poor and lawless as most of the Chinese inhabitants of Hongkong were at the time, they were not forgetful of the value of education. For at least a century before the British occupation of Hongkong, there were already small Chinese Schools in existence in the villages of Wongnaichung, Stanley, Little Hongkong and Aberdeen. Each of these Schools counted probably, year by year, an average attendance of some ten boys. These scholars, on an average 50 per annum, with their five teachers, repre-sented, previous to the advent of the English, the entire school-going population of Hongkong, less than one (about 0.89) per cent of the whole of the inhabitants.
Each of those 50 scholars used to pay to his teacher, apart from small presents of eggs, fruit or fowls, given at certain festivals, a monthly fee consisting of 30 cash and 4 catties of rice, representing the value of about 12 cents. In return for this fee, the young hopeful Hongkongites were taught to read and commit to memory a list of clan names (Pak-ka-sing), the Three-characters-classic (Sam-sze-king), the Four-characters-classic (Tsin-sze-man), and — in the rare case of boys attending school for more than three years — some of the so-called Four Books of ancient Chinese literature. In addition to reading and memoriter exercises, the scholars were taught to write Chinese characters, on wooden tablets at first, and, in the case of the few who could afford the additional expense, even on paper (by means of copy slips which had to be traced through tissue paper). During harvest time in the Hakka villages, and during the annual fishing seasons among the Punti fishermen, the schools were closed and the teachers left without fees, excepting what they earned by acting as letter-writers, accountants, fortune tellers and geomancers for the people in general.
However little positive knowledge, apart from mere reading and writing, was disseminated by these Schools, the teachers' personal influ-ence, rather than their teaching, served to keep alive among the people of Hongkong the national respect for Confucian tenets of morality and cere-monialism. Thus these little Schools did after all a small modicum of genuine educational work by partaking of the general character of Chi-nese education which leans on ethics as European education leans on religion.
Such was the state of education in Hongkong previous to, and at the time when, the British flag was for the first time hoisted at the foot of Taipingshan, on Tuesday, 26 January, 1841, and when formal possession was taken, for all time, of the whole Island of Hongkong, in the name of Her Majesty, Queen Victoria.
There is no record of any new School having been established in Hongkong during the first year of the Colony's existence. The attention of the Government and of the European community was much engrossed with the removal of property and personnel from Macao to Hongkong, with the selection and laying out of building lots and with the erection of residences, offices and storehouses. Everything was altogether too un-settled yet, to admit even of the thought of any measures towards improv-ing the educational condition of the inhabitants. The Chinese also, the refuse of whose lowest classes began, early in 1841, to flock to the site of the present city of Victoria, consisted during the first few years of our Colonial history, chiefly of boat-people, common labourers, stone-ma-sons, blacksmiths, and provision dealers, all of whom had come to Hongkong, in defiance of Mandarin prohibitions, for temporary employ-ment rather than as settlers and left their families on the mainland. They naturally had neither time nor inclination to think of the education of the young. Some Protestant Missionaries, however, and notably Drs. Bridgman, Ball, Hobson, and Revs. W. J. Boone, W. C. Milne and J. L. Schuck, who were settled at Macao at the time, came over to Hongkong on sundry occasions in spring and summer 1841, to prospect the future capabilities of the Island and to report to their respective Societies as to their making this new British Settlement the headquarters of their future evangelizing
INTRODUCTION 17
operations. Plans were formed and recommendations were made by the Missionaries, but none of them appears to have commenced any educa-tional work in Hongkong during this first year of the young Colony's existence.
2. Asile de la Sainte Enfance, Trench Convent, directed by the Sisters of Saint-Paul of Chartres, at Hong Kong, Monography (1910), pp. 8-9 (Illus. 1.1).
To provide something of the 'flavour' of this publication, a photocopy of two pages is presented. The incomplete sentence at the top of page 8 refers to the efforts of the 'young and intrepid missionary', Tather (later Bishop) Porcade, who had attempted to 'penetrate into the inaccessible empire of the Levant' and instead selected Hong Kong as a site worthy of special attention '... where he was about to receive the episcopal consecration'.
3. Letter from London Missionary Society32 members in Hong Kong to Sir Henry Pottinger, the first Governor of Hong Kong, 18th August 1843, CO 129/2, pp. 258^63.
The following extracts provide evidence about the declared objectives of the London Missionary Society in Hong Kong. They also permit inferences to be drawn about the tactics adopted by the members of the Society in their campaign to secure Government support and the sympathy of merchants. The series of Colonial Office files which contains this document is the principal collection of original correspondence between Governors of Hong Kong and Secretaries of State for the Colonies?*
Sir,
By letters dated 31st Dec. 1842 the Directors of the London Missionary Society requested their agents in China, Batavia, and the Straits of Ma-lacca, to assemble at an early opportunity in Hongkong for the purpose of conferring on the measures necessary to be adopted for removing the
32. The London Missionary Society had been founded in 1792 as an non-denominational, basically non-conformist Protestant missionary organization and later served the English Congregational Churches, being particularly active in Africa as well as Asia. Nowadays, its work in Hong Kong is administered by the Church of Christ in China. The letter from which this extract is taken was signed by the most prominent non-conformist missionaries in Hong Kong and China at the time, namely, Samuel Dyer, Benjamin Hobson, James Legge,
W.H. Medhurst, W.C. Milne, Alexander Stronach and John Stronach.
33. The CO 129 series continued until the early 1950s, when it was replaced by CO 1023 and later, CO 1030. The correspondence in each of these series includes many enclosures and numerous comments, sometimes in the form of very frank minutes, by officials. 'Supple-mentary7 (a euphemism for Confidential) correspondence appears in the series CO 537 and the Minutes of the Hong Kong Executive Council in CO 131.
Hong-Kong where he was about to receive the epis-copal consecration.
Japan remaining obstinately closed, Bishop For-cade made Hong-Kong the field of his activity, and became from the outset an ardent auxiliary, and one of the first indebted to the providential work of the Sainte-Enfance.
In a letter dated the i4lh of December 1847, and addressed to the Revn<1 Mother General of the Sisters of Sl Paul of Chartres, he exposed
the project that his apostolic heart had conceived.
The plan was thus drawn out clear and precise, crib, hospital, boarding-school, novitiate, all had been foreseen.
The execution of this plan was accepted by the Community of the Sisters of Sl Paul, although at
-9 —
this epoch; it did not possess as yet any Establish-ment in the West. Four sisters (one of whom was the sister of Bishop Forcade, Sister Alphonsine), were named for Hong-Kong, and received the mis-sion of founding the first Asile of the Sainte-Enfance.
These valiant sisters formed the vanguard of a whole army of white coifs that may be seen to-dav in Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin, China, Japan, Corea, Siam, Laos, and in the Philipine Islands; an army that went out not to sow death, but to sow life for eternity. The 4th of May 1848 they bade adieu to their mother-house of Chartres, set off for Paris, and from there to London, where they em-barked on board the Sappho.
The route by the Suez Canal was shorter and more rapid, but also more expensive. The Sappho took the direction of the Cape and arrived at Hong-Kong on the 12th of September only : the voyage had lasted four long months. This was the first initiation into the fatigues and trials, which awaited the heroic little phalanx.
O
G
9
d
o
z
§X
§o a
1
Illus. 1.1 Two pages from Asile de la Sainte Enfance, French Convent, directed by the Sisters of Saint-Paul of Chartres, at Hong Kong, Monography (1910).
INTRODUCTION
Anglo-Chinese College from Malacca to that Island; and after conferring together, 'to apply to the British Government for the grant of a site of land suitable for the erection of a Building for the Anglo-Chinese College, with residences for two or more Missionaries and an Office for Printing, etc.
The original and unalterable object of the Anglo-Chinese College is two-fold: the reciprocal cultivation of Chinese and English literature, and the spread of the gospel of Jesus Christ; the former being carried on with a view to the promotion of the latter.
. . . The Directors of the London Missionary Society have for some years been fully aware of the deficiencies of their operations in Malacca, and anxious to embrace the earliest opportunity of removing the College to a more favourable situation. No sooner did they learn the advantageous terms of the peace which had been concluded by Your Excellency with the Emperor of China, than they met together, and issued to their missionar-ies the instructions to which we have referred above.
In making provision for the conduct of the Institution in this Island, we have thought it advisable to make a considerable alteration and en-largement of the plan on which it has hitherto been conducted.
To secure the confidence of the British Government34 and of the For-eign Community in China, it is proposed that the management of its affairs shall be under a Committee, in which various members of the Foreign Community shall be associated with the Missionaries of the Lon-don Missionary Society and that J.R. Morrison Esq., the son of the Founder, shall in any case be a member of such Committee.35 Dr. Legge will con-tinue to sustain in it the office of Principal, and it is proposed that he be
34.
The London Missionary Society (L.M.S.) members certainly did not succeed, initially, in this respect. See Chapter 3, Evidence 5(a), for Pottinger's reaction to this application.
35.
Robert Morrison was the L.M.S. pioneer in China. He had accompanied the abortive Amherst mission to Peking in 1817, founded the Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca in 1818 and had translated the Bible into Chinese while at Macau and Canton. He died in 1834 and the Morrison Education Society had been established in his memory in 1835. The L.M.S. members naturally paid homage to his memory in this letter, aware that Pottinger had already made a land grant and provided financial assistance to the Morrison Education Society. They were also clearly hoping to take advantage of J.R. Morrison's standing in the Hong Kong Government and his friendly relations with Pottinger, in a way not dissimilar perhaps, to the Chinese use of middlemen. John Robert Morrison, the second son of Robert Morrison, was not a missionary, but had risen high in official circles, thanks to his fluency in the Chinese language. He had served the British Superintendency of Trade, succeeding his father as 'Chinese Secretary and Interpreter' in 1834, and it was in this capacity that he joined the first Government of Hong Kong at the end of June 1843. By August 1843, he had been appointed Acting Colonial Secretary and, therefore, the authors of the letter to Sir Henry Pottinger probably felt they had cause to be sanguine. Within days, however, Morrison was struck down by 'Hong Kong fever' and he died in Macau on 29 August 1843, an event described by Pottinger as 'an irreparable national calamity'.
joined, as soon as possible, by a Colleague from England, who will under-take the various departments of natural science.
To ensure a permanent supply of Chinese students, it is proposed to establish a preparatory school in immediate connection with the College, the scholars of which shall be eligible as students when they have ob-tained a certain amount of proficiency in the English and Chinese lan-guages.
Wherever schools are established at the different Ports to the North-ward by the Missionaries of the London Missionary Society, these will likewise continue to serve as Preparatory Schools to the College, and converts to Christianity from among the Chinese, of talents adapted to render them useful in spreading true and divine knowledge among their countrymen, will always be transferred to it, to receive a Theological training, principally through the medium of their own language.
Boys and young men possessed of the requisite attainments will be readily admitted from other schools, or on the recommendation of private individuals.
It is not intended to confine the advantages of the Institution to the Chinese. Gentlemen from Europe, and other parts of the world, who are anxious to prosecute the study of the Chinese language will be provided with apartments in it, on their submitting to the laws of its internal regulation. The children of European and other parents who have attained a specified proficiency in the studies belonging to a liberal education, will be admissible to the College classes, and in case of numerous applications for the admission of children not so far advanced, it is proposed to estab-lish a preparatory school for their previous training.
.. . It is our hope, that the existence of such an Educational Seminary in Hongkong, will be the means of widely diffusing the principles of sound knowledge and true religion, and that ultimately through the in-strumentality of native agents educated in the College as through its direct and immediate labours, multitudes of the Chinese will be led to refer with feelings of gratitude to this free and British settlement.
'Report of the Morrison Education Society, 1844 (by the Rev. S.R. Brown, Headmaster of the Morrison Education Society School)', Chinese Repository XIII (December 1844)36,632-34.
36. The Chinese Repository was a Protestant missionary publication of the time, having produced its first issue from Canton in May 1832. Its main financial sponsors were Ameri-can. The Morrison Education Society had been founded in Canton in 1835 to commemorate the work of Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary to the Chinese who had died on 2 August 1834. It was the first missionary body to open a school in Hong Kong (in 1842). The headmaster of the school, the Rev. Samuel R. Brown was from Yale College. He had
INTRODUCTION
These extracts from Brown's second report to the Morrison Education Society of his school's activities in Hong Kong reveal something of his attitudes and a practitioner's analysis of problems of education in the early years of colonial Hong Kong. Brown was neither the first nor the last person to emphasize the problems created by the traditional Chinese learning methods.
.. . When a pupil is received into our school, he is young, ignorant of almost everything but the little affairs of his home, prejudiced against all that is not of Chinese origin, the dupe of superstition, trembling at the shaking of a leaf as if earth and air were peopled with malignant spirits, trained to worship all manner of senseless things, and in short having little but his mental constitution to assimilate him to the child of Christen-dom, or to form the nucleus of the development we would give him. It is quite impossible for me to describe my emotions when looking for the first time on a class of new pupils.
They differ in features as much as others, but there is usually a universal expression of passive inanity pervading them. The black but staring, glassy eye, and open mouth, bespeak little more than stupid wonder gazing out of emptiness. It matters little whether the child has been at school before or not. What he has learned there, is.. . the names of written characters, that in all probability never conveyed to him one new idea from first to last. He knows no more of the world at large, nor any more of any science than if he had never seen a book or a teacher. He may have been three or four years at school, (though such instances are com-paratively rare among our pupils,) but yet his knowledge of facts would have been quite as extensive, had he never been there a day. Whatever, therefore, his previous advantages may have been, he comes here with so much useful knowledge as has been described, and at the same time with a mind to be emptied of a vast accumulation of false and superstitious notions that can never tenant an enlightened mind, for they cannot coexist with truth. Young as he is too, he is nevertheless the victim of habits that must be replaced by those that are good, or else to increase his knowledge would only empower him to do mischief without enlarging his capacity for happiness.
arrived with his wife in Macau on 23 February 1839 and began the study of Chinese. He and his wife opened the Morrison Education Society School in Macau on 1 November 1839 and moved it to Hong Kong (into temporary quarters first) on 1 November 1842. Extracts from his first annual report to the Society about the school's activities in Hong Kong are included as Evidence 4(c) in Chapter 3. Later, he took three of his pupils from the Morrison Educa-tion Society School in Hong Kong back to America with him for further studies; these pupils included Yung Wing (Yung Hung) who was to become so important in China's Self-strengthening Movement. Further clues to Brown's educational ideas may be found in Carl
T. Smith, op. cit., pp. 13 ff.
The habits referred to are, primarily, an utter disregard of truth, obscenity, and cowardliness. I might enumerate others, but these are certainly enough to undermine every superstructure of virtue that we may attempt to build, and I have never known a Chinese boy who was not at first possessed of them all...
. . . The child partakes of the feelings of his father, and the latter is sometimes so unconscious of his own habitual contempt for those born out of China, that when he comes to seek admission for his son to school, he accosts the foreign teacher as a 'foreign devil'. Kindness however soon meets with a response.
It is not long, if the right course be pursued, before the pupil's love is sufficiently secured to afford a prop to lean upon, and now the lever must be applied. Here the question occurs, by what means shall we communi-cate instruction to these minds? We know that language and books are requisite, whatever mode of teaching we may adopt. But if we look to the Chinese language and literature, we shall, I think, find them inadequate to our purpose, for in their present state they are unfit instruments of educa-tion. The colloquial tongue is not adapted to convey to the mind, some of the simplest facts of science, much less the multitude of abstract and technical terms belonging to it. Shall we resort to books? They are equally ill-suited to our object. Suppose the child to be able to read them, still he is not thereby brought much nearer to the fountain of knowledge. The school books of China are the same throughout the land. They are what is commonly called the 'Four Books' and Tive Classics/ that is, the writings and teachings of Confucius, Mencius, and others, who lived before the Christian era. Their commentators, though men of more modern times, have confined themselves to the elucidation of the text of these books, and of course could not render them much more adapted to the use of chil-dren. Both the style and subjects of these writings are such as to forbid it. The subjects are politico-moral principles, which the sages of antiquity, made the theme of their discourse to princes, and their disciples, and the poetry of times immemorial.
The book first put into the hands of a child in this country, is a poetical work, in which each verse consists of three words or monosyllables. The very construction of it, albeit it was made for a horn-book, is quite enough to condemn it. It could not but be exceedingly concise and elliptical, though it were prose, if every sentence, or nearly so, were composed of three words. But observe the tenor of the first few lines of this book, and we shall see still more reason to refuse it a place among our means of instruction. It runs thus — Man's nature at his birth is virtuous. All are alike in this respect, but subsequent action makes the differences that we see, for if a man be not instructed his original virtue becomes corrupted/ The author then proceeds to state that, respect for superiors is the primary thing to be inculcated in education ...
INTRODUCTION
5. Extracts from the local press.
The following short extracts may offer evidence about some of the educational con-cerns, formal and informal, of at least the English-reading public in the first years of Hong Kong's colonial existence. The Friend of China began publication on 17 March, 1842. At its second issue (24 March), it was incorporated with the Hong Kong Gazette; this was an official mouthpiece, atfirst, of the Superintendence of Trade, which had previously pub-lished two small sheets from Macau, and later of the Hong Kong Government. One of its first co-editors was the American missionary, John Lewis Shuck (1842-43). Under the editorial control of John Can (1843-49) and William Tarrant (1850-59), the paper was both lively and often controversial On the whole, it represented the views of the mercantile community and was not afraid to be critical of such Government personages as Sir John Davis and Colonel William Caine. The connection with officialdom was dissolved in 1845 amid some acrimony (although it retained its full name) and The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette itself ceased publication in Hong Kong largely as a result of its editor being imprisoned for criminal libel in 1859. On his release from debtors' jail, Tarrant took his press with him, at first to Canton, later to Shanghai?7
(a) An advertisement in The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette IV (8)(25 January 1845), 655 (front page).
EDUCATION — Young ladies are received as Resident Boarders by the Misses Norgate at their residence, No. 3 Tavistock Villa, Tavistock Square, London. Board including Music, Dancing and French by a Resident Lady, Fifty Pounds per annum. Professors of eminence attend the Establishment to instruct in the various accomplishments necessary to complete the education of a young lady when she has reached the age of ten years. An extra charge of 8 guineas for remaining the vacation.
(b) A news item in The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette IV (42)(24 May 1845),
794.
A commodious school house has been erected at Hong Kong, and the missionaries and their wives have children under instruction. The food for a boy costs $18 per annum, and clothes $4; $25 a year will cover the whole
37. For further details about the publishing history of The Friend of China (and of the other local newspapers), see Frank King and Prescott Clarke, A Research Guide to China-coast Newspapers, 1822-1911 (Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965). It might also be noticed that the dates (1850-59) for Tarrant's editorship of The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette included in the text above, are concerned only with the newspaper as it was produced in Hong Kong. Tarrant remained proprietor and editor of the paper after he removed it to Canton and later Shanghai; but in these latter places, he reverted to its original shorter name, The Friend of China. It was at this time that he produced his 'History of Hong Kong', an extract from which appears as Evidence 2 in Chapter 3.
expenses of a boy thus placed under the instruction of the missionary: a girl requires $30.
(c) An advertisement in The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette TV (43)(28 May 1845), 797.
FOR SALE
By the undersigned a large assortment of books, consisting of standard works, all the novels of the day, also, sheet Music and books of Tuition, Comprador check books, Quills and Office paper.
P. TOWNSEND Victoria, 1st May, 1845.
(d) Notice in The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette IV (43X28 May 1845), 38 796
NOTICE
MESSRS. FIEBIG & RAVAC beg respectfully to announce to the Public that on Thursday the 29th inst. they intend giving
AN EVENING CONCERT
In which with the kind permission of Colonel Reynolds and the Officers of the 18th Royal Irish, they will be assisted by
The Military Band of that Regiment
PROGRAMME
1.
Cavatine from the Semiramis by Rossini Military Band.
2.
Souvenir de Bellini by Ariot for Violin ... Ravac.
3.
La Sarabanda, Grand divertimento for Pianofort composed for this occasion Fiebig.
4.
Da Melancholie by Paume, for Violin... Ravac.
5.
Duetts, Romeo and Julietta, by Bellini ... Military Band.
6.
Adagio elegico, by Ernst for Violin... Ravac.
7.
The Cells, composed and played by.. . Fiebig.
38. This might be juxtaposed with the considered opinion of The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette about the lack of talent and interest in music in the small colony. See Chapter 3, Evidence 8(a).
INTRODUCTION
8.
Carnaval of Venice, Variations by Ernst & Ravac, Ravac.
9.
God save the Queen... Military Band.
Reserved seats, $5, unreserved seats, $3. Tickets may be had on appli-cation at Mr. C.W. BOWRA or at the office of the China Mail.
The Concert will commence at 8 o'clock precisely.
6. Rev. Karl Gutzlaff39 to Sir John Davis, Governor of Hong Kong, 13 December 1845, in CO 129/16, p. 29.
The letter below bore fruit. It further demonstrates the influence of missionaries and interpreters and is interesting for the type of arguments which Gutzlaff adduced in his attempt to persuade the Government to assist local educational efforts. The comparison with 'other British Colonies' may not have been particularly convincing. As may be inferred from the source. Davis referred the matter to London.*R
Sir,
Having been in the habit of visiting the native Schools on this Island, I take the liberty of submitting for Your Excellency's consideration whether our Government, as in all other British Colonies, would not render some assistance towards their support.
There were last year under the management of the Chinese altogether eight such institutions, viz: one at Victoria, one at Wongneichong, sup-ported by foreigners, one at Sookunpoo, three along Ly-yumoon passage — one at Stanley and one at Aberdeen; but none either at Hong Kong or Shikah.41 Most were in a miserable hovel, with a few forlorn children; but generally under intelligent teachers.
If Your Excellency would be pleased to allow to each well-conducted elementary school, in which at least 15 children were taught, 10 dollars per month, the whole expenditure would not amount to more than 1,200
39.
Karl (or Charles) Gutzlaff was a Lutheran missionary and accomplished sinologue. He served as Interpreter and Assistant Secretary to the British Superintendent of Trade at Macau from 1834 to 1839, Chief Interpreter and Assistant Secretary to the Superintendent of Trade in Hong Kong from 1840 to 1842 and succeeded J.R. Morrison to the post of Chief Chinese Secretary when the latter died in August 1842. For a brief biography which may emphasize a few similarities but mainly differences between the historical Gutzlaff and the fictional Reverend Wolfgang Mauss in James Clavell's Taipan, see G.B. Endacott, A Bio-graphical Sketch-Book of Early Hong Kong (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 1962), pp. 105 ff.
40.
See Evidence 5(b) in Chapter 3.
41.
'Hong Kong' refers to the hamlet of Heungkong Tsai (or little Hong Kong), located in what is now known as the Shouson Hill area. Shikah is now normally spelt Shek O.
dollars per annum, and a great deal of good be done to the children, which no doubt would leave a most favourable impression on the minds of the parents.
7. 'Report of the Committee superintending Chinese Schools7, Blue Book, 1850,
p. 11; also in copy of a despatch from Governor Bonham to Earl Grey, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 26 April 1851 (received 21 July 1851), in CO 129/36, p. 173.
Evidence 7 offers an extract from one of the early Reports of the Education Committee. As the Chronicle for 1847 affirms, this small committee (usually three men, one or more of whom was a missionary) was responsible for supervising the schools for which the Govern-ment provided.a modicum offinancial aid. According to the Reports of 1848 and 1849, no changes had been made to the secular nature of these traditional Chinese schools or to the 'textbooks' they used. By 1850, a fourth school received Government assistance.
.. . Christian books have been introduced into all the schools, but it is not compulsory on the scholars to learn them. If the parents object, the course of study is confined to native reading.
The following are the principal books now used:
Native Works
The three character Classic. The one thousand character Classic. The four books and five Classics.
Christian Works
Medhurst's three character Classic. Bishop Boone's Catechism. The Bible.
The progress of the scholars has been, on the whole, tolerably satisfac-tory; we hope, however, by a more effectual supervision, and by the introduction of a few elementary works on various branches of useful knowledge, as soon as Chinese literature shall have been enriched by these, to work some improvement. The great distance of three, or at least two, of the four schools, coupled with our imperfect knowledge of the language, renders the supervision difficult and unsatisfactory. We can, however, only suggest one remedy that lies beyond ourselves, and this is, that the Bishop of Victoria should be accorded the entire superintendence of the schools, or at least a joint superintendence.
The most serious impediment to progress is the fluctuation of the
INTRODUCTION
27
scholars in each school, owing to the caprice, but principally to the avarice or necessities of the parents, who are unwilling to allow children to remain at school who may be employed elsewhere, with a, to them, more tangible prospect of pecuniary gain, for the importance attached by Chi-nese to the acquisition of knowledge, though great, is, we fear, secondary to that attached to the acquisition of money.
We are &c,
(Signed) C.B. Hillier
E.T.R. Moncrief LL.D. Committee for superintending Chinese schools.
8. A Few Notices on the Extent of Chinese Education and the Government Schools of Hong Kong, with Remarks on the History and Religious Notions of the Inhabitants of the Island , by the Rev. W. Lobscheid, Missionary and Inspector of Govern-ment Schools, 1859, pp. 2-3,19-22.
The following extracts from Lobscheid's A Few Notices offer evidence about the ob-jectives, organizational procedures, and curriculum of the early Government schools, as well as a record of the Report of the 1847 committee appointed by Sir John Davis to enquire into the state of the Chinese schools on Hong Kong Island.
RULES
The Government schools are instituted for the gratuitous instruction of Chinese children with a view to their prosperity and usefulness in future years...
4^The teachers are at once to arrange the boys in classes according to their proficiency, and every boy must study each day the same portion as the rest of the class. No boy is to be permitted to drop behind the rest. If he is not able to learn the appointed lesson, he must be put into a lower class. The Inspector of Schools will appoint the books, and the portion of them which are to be studied by each class, in the intervals of his visit...
7. When any European gentleman, especially a Government Officer, or any of those gentlemen who superintend the Schools, enter the school-room, the teacher should instruct the boys to stand up and be silent and respectful. Should he wish to examine the boys, the teacher will order them to have all their books ready on the table before them, so that without any delay he may proceed to see how they are progressing in their studies ...
REPORT
In pursuance of our instructions we have visited all the existing Chinese Schools in Victoria, Aberdeen, and Stanley, excepting such as are not included in the field of our investigation — those supported by the charitable contribution of Europeans. At Victoria we find three Schools in active operation: — The first situated in the East Street, Tai-ping-shan, containing 28 Scholars, and conducted by Chuy-shing-cheung; the second situated in Sheung-wan, said to contain 18 Scholars, conducted by Leung-sing-shan; and, the third, also situated in Sheung-wan, said to contain 21 Scholars, conducted by Mak-muy-chun, — making a total of 67 Scholars under tuition at Victoria.
At Aberdeen we find two Schools: — the first conducted by Soo-ping-foong, containing 7 Scholars, said to have contained 17 before the fishing season; and the second by Ching-yeok-teen, containing 4 pupils, said to have contained 10 before the fishing season, — making a total of 27 Scholars.
At Stanley we find three Schools, but in one only of these are pupils; the others are said to have been closed at the commencement of the fishing season, and to be for the education of Hakka boys exclusively. The first contains 6 Scholars, and is conducted by Lo Acheong; the second is said to have contained (before the fishing season) 10 Scholars, and to be conducted by Cheng-tseen-ko; the third 13 Scholars, to be conducted by Choong-Suei-Kuei, — making a total of 29 pupils for Stanley, and for the three places 123 pupils.
The system of instruction, hours of attendance, &c, are similar in all the Schools.
The early studies pursued are those of Reading and Writing. Arithme-tic, when taught, which is seldom done, and only at the special request of the pupil's parents, in view of his following a mercantile calling, consists merely of instruction in decimal computation on the Chinese counting board.
The books used are:— the Three Character Classic and others of its class, rising to the Four Books and Five Classics. These having been somewhat impressed upon the memory of the learner by recitation and copying, with little regard to the sense, are recommenced, the teacher explaining them by the notes of Choo-foo-tsz, and other Chinese com-mentators. After this are added studies on the composition of prose and poetry; few, however, in these parts appear to attain to this proficiency.
The hours of instruction are said to be from sunrise to sunset, allow-ing an hour or more for breakfast at 8, and for luncheon at 12.
The daily course of study seems to be an unvaried succession of learning repeating by rote, and writing, and with the advanced pupils, explanation. Each pupil learns and recites his lesson separately in a loud voice. There are no classes. The only certain holidays are those of the new
INTRODUCTION
year, commencing some time in the 12th month (Chinese) of the old, and ending sometime in the 1st month of the new year. At other seasons of rejoicing, prescribed by the Chinese calendar, the absence of the pupils is at the option of the parents.
TKe number of years during which any one pupil remains at School, depends upon the wealth or poverty of the parents, or at least the amount of money that they choose to expend in the education of their children. In the Schools that we visited, the eldest pupil was aged 18, the youngest 6.
The greatest number of pupils that one teacher can justly teach, is estimated at from 25 to 30. The amount paid by each pupil at from $2 to $6 a-year, paid annually, seldom monthly.
The fishing season is said to commence in the 9th, and end in the 3rd month, of the Chinese year; and the children of fishermen, who form a large portion of the Scholars at the villages, accompany their parents to sea; they are therefore under tuition during only half the year. The same custom seems to be followed by children of the Hakka, a race of which the population of these village seems principally to consist. When the pupils in a school, therefore, consist only of these classes, the teacher usually returns during the fishing season to his family on the mainland, not more than one or two of the Schools being conducted by natives of Hongkong.
With regard to interference with the religious prejudices of the Chi-nese, we think that there is no need for apprehension on this score; no persons seem less bigoted than the Chinese to their system of religious belief, and they have proved in most cases willing to allow their children to receive religious instruction and to receive it themselves.
We cannot think it advisable to separate the knowledge of what we and all the Christian world confess to be the highest truths from other knowledge, having only a weaker power to develop the reasoning facul-ties, and make the instructed more orderly and useful members of society; and we observe that, in the minutes of the plan of national education lately published in England, the reading of the Holy Scriptures is made a necessary condition of the reception of Governmental aid.
We therefore advocate the ultimate introduction into these Schools of the study of the Bible and should regret any measure likely to exclude religious instruction; but at present, and until experience has been gained, and better means are at hand, we think any interference with the existing course of instruction would be injudicious. We suggest that no such interference be attempted at present, but that a committee for the purpose of supervising the Schools which accept of Government aid be appointed, and that they make from time to time, subject to the approval of Govern-ment, such alternations in the mode of tuition as may gradually lead to introduction of a better system, and of a knowledge likely to be of greater service to pupils in after life than that to be gathered from the pages of their native literature.
We believe that the desire manifested by Her Majesty's Government
to provide in some degree for the education of the poorer classes of the population will be appreciated by well disposed Chinese, and the assis-tance readily received by those for whom it is intended. All the Chinese teachers whom we addressed appeared satisfied at the arrangement, and willing to carry it into effect on the terms we proposed.
Vigilance will be required to prevent the misappropriation of the monthly grant. We first propose that it be left to the Committee to appor-tion it among the Chinese Schools at Victoria, Aberdeen, and Stanley, in such manner as may seem to them most likely to effect the desired end; secondly, that no fixed monthly salary be given to any teacher, but that he be allowed to receive as many pupils whose education will be paid for, or partly paid for, by Government (say at the rate of twenty-five cents a month each) as he shall have pupils in his school, the expense of whose education shall be defrayed wholly by their parents, limited of course by the amount of the grant; thirdly, that reading, writing, and arithmetic, after the Chinese mode be the only branches of learning, that it shall be imperative on the master to teach; fourthly, that the master shall render to the Committee a monthly record of the number and names of the Schol-ars, distinguishing those wholly or partly educated by Government; fifthly, that his School shall be subject to the visits of the Committee, in whose option it shall be to withdraw or continue the allowance, as they shall find the School to be ill or well conducted; and lastly, that there be hung up in a conspicuous part of the School room, a board inscribed with these Regulations, which the Committee or the Government may from time to time deem it expedient to make.
9. 'Education Report, 1865', Hongkong Government Gazette, 1866 (by Frederick Stewart42), p. 138.
In 1865, the Board of Education was dissolved. This brief extract is, therefore, from Stewart's first Report as unsupervised Inspector of Schools. Comparisons suggest them-selves not only with his later attitudes, but also with the attitude of the Rev. S.R. Brown towards traditional Chinese education.
. . . The Chinese have no education in the real sense of the word. No attempt is made at the simultaneous development of the mental powers.
42. Frederick Stewart (1838-89) was, in his mid-twenties, the first Headmaster of the Central School in 1862 and Inspector of Government Schools. From 1865 he was head of the embryonic Education Department. He was succeeded by Eitel as Inspector of Government Schools in 1878 and resigned as Headmaster of the Central School in 1881 to take up a series of senior posts in the Hong Kong Government — Police Magistrate and Coroner, May 1881-March 1882; Acting Colonial Secretary, March 1882-March 1883; Registrar-General, 1883-87; Colonial Secretary, 1887-89.
INTRODUCTION
31
These are all sacrificed to the cultivation of memory. The boy who can repeat correctly the writings of Confucius and Mencius is considered a great scholar although he may be as ignorant of their meaning as if they were written in a language of which he did not know the meaning.
10, Frederick Stewart, 'Education Report, 1866', in Hong Kong Government Blue Book, 1866, p. 280.
Government Blue Books were collections of official statistics and, in the early period, included Departmental Reports. This extract from Stewart's second Report may suggest a moderation of his attitude towards Chinese education. One might also infer that Stewart personally would have preferred that the Hong Kong Government should have been more active and interventionist in thefield ofeducation, a view that was by no means common at the time.**
.. . [Village schools] continue as they were .. . simply schools where villagers can obtain for their children, free of all cost, such an education as would be given to them in any native school in China, and although this may be very barren of what we consider as the necessary elements of any education that is worth the name, it is not to be supposed that it is useless. It is founded on principles which are strictly moral, which have minute reference to all the relations of life, and which have sustained, from centuries before Europe was civilized to the present day, the whole fabric of Chinese polity and manners. It deserves, at least, to be maintained until the Colony is in a position to substitute something better in its stead. This is not intended as a defence of Chinese education but merely a statement of the grounds on which the Government bases its present relations with these schools.
11. Sir Richard MacDonnell to the Duke of Buckingham, 4 April 1868, in CO 129/ 130, p. 3.
Another pronouncement on Chinese education, this view by Governor MacDonnell^ emphasizes the problems faced by the pupils in Hong Kong.
.. . The subject of Chinese Education [in Hong Kong] is of a particu-larly interesting nature, more especially so as the means adopted, in
43.
For example, see Evidence 14 in this chapter, and Evidences 1 and 4(b) of in Chapter 4 .
44.
MacDonnell was an energetic Governor of Hong Kong from 1866 to 1872. He was an enthusiastic supporter of 'modern' educational ideas. At his behest, Electricity and Chemis-try were introduced into the curriculum of the Central School.
accordance with Western ideas, for instilling knowledge of the simplest character into the minds of the Chinese youth, are entirely contrary to the course of teaching in vogue in their native land.
12. Frederick Stewart, 'Report on Education, 1871', dated 15 February 1872, in CO 129/157, pp. 136-38.
This later Report by Frederick Stewart provides anecdotal reminiscence and some insight into his own, quite 'advanced' ideas about education.*5
... On the 10th of next month the school [the Central School] will have had a history of ten years. Although it would be wrong to measure its progress by decades and not by years, I cannot help reverting to the state of affairs on the opening day, the 10th of March, 1862.
Having arrived in the Colony but a few days previously, I had no knowledge of Chinese. I found congregated in the two Chinese class-rooms a crowd of nearly 300 boys, about one half of whom were scholars under the three Chinese masters, whose schools had previously been in various streets in the Upper and Central Bazaars. The rest were either candidates for the English classes, or stray-comers for the gratification of curiosity.
The normal state of a Chinese school is that the lessons are shouted at the pitch of the voice. My entrance was the signal for a startling display of this diligence. Unaccustomed to such a deafening din, my first feeling was surprise, and my second anger. I shouted 'Silence!' This was tacitly inter-preted to mean Head louder!' Another attempt at order meeting with a fresh accession of noise, I retreated, almost in despair, to one of the lower class-rooms, where I had interviews with my young friends in more manageable detachments...
. . . [Concerning the large number of children in Hong Kong not at school] Compulsory education would uproot the evil; but is compulsory education possible here? I confess myself unable to give an answer. One thing is certain, that if these eleven thousand children were compelled to go to school, food and clothing would have to be supplied to them. In many cases, lodging would have to be provided for them also. A large proportion of the children live in boats, which are here today and some-where else tomorrow. About one half of them, too, are girls, for whom education is considered not a superfluity merely, but a mistake.46
The first question, therefore, which calls for an answer is not — Shall
45.
As mentioned elsewhere (e.g., in f.n. 45 of Chapter 4), there seem to be grounds for associating Stewart with quite liberal 'Utilitarian' or philosophical-radical ideas.
46.
See also Chapter 3, Evidence 14, and Chapter 4, Evidence 1(a) and 1(c).
INTRODUCTION
we have compulsory education? but — How are these two enemies of education, poverty and prejudice, to be overcome'? .. .
13. Letter by Wang T'ao to a friend, in T'ao Yuan Ch'ih Tu (Shanghai, 1893), c. 6, f.
116, also cited in H. McAlevy, The Life and Writings of a Displaced Person, Wang
T'ao (1828-1890) (China Society Occasional Papers, edited by S. Howard Hansford, No. 7) (1953), p. 19.
Wang T'ao (1828-1897) was a distinguished scholar who played an important role in the cultural interaction between China and the West. He assisted in W.H. Medhurst's translation of the Bible and in James Legge's translations of the Chinese Classics. He became interested in Western science and introduced, for example, the ideas of Bacon to China.*7 He is writing, here, about Hong Kong in the 1860s.
Hong Kong is a small, out of the way island, where nobody goes in for anything but buying and selling. The place is full of traders out to make money. How can you expect to find men of culture in such surroundings? There is nothing to do and nobody to talk to. Apart from going to visit the singing girls, I spend most of my time in my own room.
14. From The Central School: Can it Justify its Raison d'etre?, anonymous pamphlet,
1877, pp. 15-16,30.
This argument might be compared with Gutzlaff s (1845) case in favour of Govern-ment support of education.*8 It also provides a very early example of allegations about deculturization and alienation.
.. . Is it right that the Central School should be a Government School, its Masters Government Officers, and its entire support be derived from the public treasury? Is it right that it should absorb nearly the whole of the money the colony can afford to pay towards education?
To get a satisfactory answer to these questions, it is necessary first to ascertain:
47.
In this sense, he was a very significant agent of the Self-strengthening Movement in China. He was also concerned to diffuse Chinese learning to the West and was, therefore, prepared to help Legge for little pecuniary reward. He accompanied Legge to Europe and on one occasion gave a talk on the teaching of Confucius at Oxford University, using Legge as interpreter. On his departure from Britain, he presented Oxford University with 11,000 volumes of books he had brought with him from China to help disseminate Chinese culture in the West. For further details, see Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Western Cultures, pp. 43^85.
48.
See Evidence 6 above.
(1)
On what principles government ought to deal with popular educa-tion?
(2)
How far the English government has adapted or departed from these principles in its dealings with the colonies?
(3)
What modification, if any, the circumstances of this colony render necessary in the application of these principles here and now?
(4)
How far does the system, at present in operation here, coincide with or depart from these approved principles? It is no part of the duty of a government, as such, to educate the
people over whom it holds sway. Its primary duty is to provide for the security of life and property, and to see that each member of the commu-nity has the freedom of action which is essential to the growth and devel-opment of every organized society.
On the parent falls the duty of educating his children as of feeding them, of clothing them and of setting them out in the world, and he alone has the right to decide, as he alone has the means of deciding, in what manner and to what degree he shall educate them to fit them for the position and duties which lie before them. The state may enforce the performance by the parent of this duty of education as it enforces the duty of maintenance and support, but, except in extreme cases, it does not interfere to dictate how and to what extent the education shall be given, no more than it attempts to regulate the quantity and quality of the food a parent shall give to his child ...
(p.30)... and what sort of education do these favoured few [the pupils at the Central School] get at the expense of the community? No moral training whatever, less than none, for they deteriorate. They lose all rever-ence for their parents, of whom they become intellectually the superiors. They learn to disregard the sages of China and the old-fashioned proprie-ties of Chinese life. They add the vices of Europeans to the follies of Chinese youth...
15. Dates and Events (1857-1877) connected with the History of Education in Hong Kong, anonymous, printed at the St. Louis Reformatory (1877), inside back cover (Illus. 1.2).
This outline from the other important anonymous pamphlet on educational matters published in 1877 offers an extract from a very selective chronicle.
INTRODUCTION
TABLE II.
Was secular education adopted in hostility to (Denominational Schools?
Tear. Page.
I860.—Tho Central School was no longer exclusively confiued to tho Chinese 14
1867.—Christian and secular educatiou, says Mr. Stewart, most for the present be accepted as two distinct fields of operation in Hongkong, the Missionaries will have their choice, the Government its choice : 16
At the Cential School IT. E. Sir Richard MacDonnell says : he would be glad to see the Govern-ment School made sufficiently attractive to draw in the children of Portuguese and Hindoos. (Sir Richard MacDonnell in the precedent year at St. Savionr'o College, after having highly praised the Roman Catholic Schools, said that when he first arrived he learned that European children were not received at the Central School. He took immediate steps to abrogate such a rule.) 21
1872.—Sir Richard MacDonnell is glad to see at the Central School some Japanese, Portuguese and boys of other nationalities besides Chinese ., 26
A Meeting took place at the City Hall, 30 persons attended it. Sir Arthur Kennedy said that if a school should be opened, it ought to be a secnlar one. He had no earthly sympathy with sectarianism. Mr. Stewart supported secular edncation, Mr. Francis religious education. On being asked by Mr. Francis how he taught history Mr. Stewart answered he Wanted only to defeud himself. 28
The translation of English books into Chinese is to render the teaching in Chinese School sufficiently undenominational to fairly come under the term secular 31
In the grant-in-aid system are prescribed four hours of continued secular education 31
1875.—Morrison Scholarship to the Central School. Dr. Eitel and J. Lamout, Trustees,- objected to the exclusion of Christian instruction from the course prescribed, it was finally agreed that in view of tho present purely secular character of the School, the religious part of the course should be kept in abeyance until such time as the regulations admitted of its being made a part of the system , 35
Corres{>ondence in the China Mail about Morrison Scholarships. "The money given for Protestant tcachiug has been hurriedly applied to pagan teaching to avoid the imminent risk of a legal decision in favour of S. Paul's College." 37
The fob tor of the China Mail has no hope that undenominational instruction will lead to any result such as the education of Catholic children 3(5
Correspondence in the China lfai7, "how suicidal must be the educational policy, which in the vain hope of securing the approbation of the Romanists treats Christianity as if it were of loss iiiipnrtanco than Arithmetic or Geography." 37
Mooting of the Legislative Council, a Member opposes tho grant towards rebuilding St. Joseph's Church, because ho understood that the Priests of the Catholic religion here were opposed to the unsectariau education provided for children in the Colony 3D
A correspondent in the Hongkong Times confntes the assertions made by tho Member at the Legis-lative Council. The grant proposed has nothing to do with the education ipmstion. Tho Priests here do what tho Roman Catholic Church prescribes and what every secular and com-mercial corporation claims to -1-9
1870.—Sir Arthui Kennedy at tho Central School : The only thing he should bo sorry to see there would bo that the School should be dosortod by Europeans , 42
A cor respondent in the Hongkong TLMS asks tho reason why they are so troubled for a few boys turning their back on that School, seeking elsewhere that which is denied there viz : a religions education 43
Illus. 1.2 Insideback coverofDates and Events connected with the HistoryofEducation in Hong Kong.
16. J.M. Price, Surveyor-General, to W.H. Marsh, Colonial Secretary, 14 July 1883, in CO 129/210, p. 353.
Evidence about attitudes, as well as about prevailing practices?9 for the training of teachers, presents itself in this routine-sounding correspondence.
. . . class-rooms arranged as requested by Mr. Wright [Headmaster, the Central School] in such manner that each large class-room opens into two smaller class-rooms with glass doors to enable one European teacher to supervise two Chinese assistant teachers ...
17. Extracts from examination papers at the Central School and its successor institutions.
Although flawed, both in organization and in interpretation, Stokes' work includes much interesting information about what was for many years the Hong Kong Govern-ment's showpiece school. First-hand information about examination papers may also be derived from many of the annual reports of the early Inspectors of Education. Readers may wish to use the following extracts to make comparisons and inferences about the curricu-lum and standards of this school at various points in time.
A. From G.G. Stokes, Queen's College, 1862-1962 (1962), pp. 27,58, and 79.
Extracts from the Class I examination papers for 1871:
Algebra 1. x2 + 2ax + 3a2 x x2 - 2ax + a2
4. A and B have $8. A and C have $10. B and C have $14. What have they each?
Arithmetic 4. Reduce 7/10^ d to the decimal of ￡2.
Chemistry 6. Silver. (1) By what process can chemically pure silver be obtained? (2) How is silver extracted from Galena? (3) What are the properties of silver?
Composition The Orange.
Dictation When I was a child of seven years old, my friends on a holiday filled my pocket with half-pence. I went
49. See the references to the short-lived 'Normal School' in the Chronicle for 1881 and 1882, in Chapter 4.
INTRODUCTION
directly towards a shop where toys were sold for children...
Mathematical Bisect any given angle. Drawing
Geography 8. Draw as full and correct a map of Africa as you can.
Geometry 1. Define a circle, an isosceles triangle, a rhombus and a parallelogram.
Grammar 4. Write in full the past tense, indicative, potential and subjunctive, active and passive, of the verb to learn.
Extracts from the Class I examination paper for 1892:
Latin Translate 'He says that it is very easy/
Chemistry Give Avogadro's Law and a Corollary from it.
Composition Opium Smoking.
Pupil Teachers' No great organization can exist without a root idea. Theory What is the root idea of Victoria College?
Class IA and IB Composition Paper, 1905:
(a)
Write all you know about female infanticide in China. Describe any case about which you may have heard yourself.
(b)
To boycott American goods would be like cutting off one's nose to spite one's face. Discuss this assertion.
(c)
Should Chinese who wish to become British subjects be com-pelled to shave off their queues first?
B.
From 'Annual Report of the Central School for 1885', in CO 129/225, p. 91.
HISTORY (3 hours)
1.
What do you know of the following: Anselm, Geoffrey of Anjou, Stephen Langton, Simon de Montfort, Maud of Norway, Jack Cade, Perkin Warbeck, Roger Bacon, Sir Thomas More, Cranmer, Sir Francis Drake, and Edmund Spenser?
2.
Compare the reigns of Edward II and Richard II.
3.
Who fought the following battles and which side won? Northaler-ton, Fair of Lincoln, Bannockburn, Nevill's Cross, St. Alban's, Tewkesbury, Flodden, and Rikie.
4.
In whose reigns did England make greater conquests in France? Give the names of the battles.
5.
What happened in 1100,1172,1215,1327,1403,1492,1587,1600?
6.
Write a short account of the conquest of Wales.
18. Attitudes of two Headmasters.
In the first briefextract, Stokes adopts a vague chronology and anecdotal tone to insert an unattributed quotation from Bateson Wright's 'Report on Queen's College' of 7 May 1902. The second extract is from the source Stokes may have used and offers further evidence about Bateson-Wright's attitudes and opinions.
(a)
G.G. Stokes, Queen's College, 1862-1962 (1962), pp. 38-39.
.. . The second Headmaster [Dr. G.H. Bateson-Wright], a few years later [actually, fourteen years after the event Stokes had been discussing], wrote: 'Dr. Stewart's practice ... was to admit, first, all boys with letters from leading European and Chinese residents; second, all who knew some English; third, the most intelligent looking of the remainder. After admission these boys were examined in Chinese... to qualify for Chinese classes, not for admission to the Central School.
(b)
'Report on Queen's College', in CO 129/311, pp.^62 ff.
.. . I found on my arrival (1882) that the Chinese possessed a very limited English vocabulary. History provides terms of war and politics, as well as of usual domestic occurrences, births, deaths and marriages, etc., Shakespeare requires employment of all the commonest phrases in con-nection with matters of every day life, as well as in expression of emotion and humour; the explanation of these being given in ordinary modern conversational English appears to me to be highly instructive ...
.. . I discovered the great want in the Chinese boy is exactness of thought and expression, and I do not dread opposition to this view from any Educationalist from Plato downwards...
... On political grounds I am strongly averse to any instruction in Chi-nese history which would expose us to the charge of being the nursery for Revolutionists on the [Chinese] Continent50...
50. By 1905, Bateson-Wright certainly had grounds to be sensitive to this charge, since Sun Yat-sen and others prominent in the revolutionary movement had been pupils in his school.
INTRODUCTION
.. . I have always understood that the main object of Queen's College was not to train boys for mere copying clerks, book-keepers or even Translators or Interpreters, but to give them a generally thorough good education in which the knowledge of English was to bear a prominent part. In this view I have been supported by the public utterances of various Governors and so recently as 4th February 1893 by the Marquis of Ripon's Despatch... paragraph 2: 'Victoria [Queen's] College ought to be the model secondary school of the Colony.'
19. C.S. Addis, 'Education in China', The China Review XVIII (1889-90), 205-12 (Illus. 1.3).
Despite its title, this article is mainly about education in Hong Kong. As might be expected in a journal edited by Eitel, it offers a polemic, quite well-informed and lucidly written, compatible with the views of the Protestant missionaries. Addis, himself, arrived in Hong Kong as a clerk in the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank. His name appears (if misspelt) as one of a sinological study-group in the mid-'eighties.51 He was later knighted and became Manager of the Bank in London.
20. Extract from F.T. Cheng, East and West: Episodes in a Sixty Years' Journey
(London: Hutchinson, 1951), p. 42.
F.T. Cheng (or Cheng T'ien-hsi) had a long and prominent career in Republican China, being the leading Western-trained legal expert of the time. He became a fudge of the International Court of Justice at The Hague and ended his career as the last Nationalist Chinese Ambassador to Great Britain. He received part of his education at Queen's College, entering the school in 1897.52
. . . But Hong Kong in those days [the 1890s] was a place rather for trade than for learning. For instance, in the English schools the highest that one could learn in mathematics did not go beyond Book IV of Euclid; and the first book in English began with the sentence: Tom eats two eggs a day; you see how fat he is.'
The standard of the Chinese schools was certainly much higher and
See Yan Woon-yin, Hong Kong and the Modernization of China (1862-1911): The Contri-bution of the Central School Graduates' (unpublished B. A. dissertation, University of Hong Kong); and Ng Lun Ngai-ha, Interactions of East and West, pp. 147 ff. It might be noted, however, that the composition paper for Class 1 in 1905 does not indicate an aversion to the political aspects of current affairs. See Evidence 17(a) above.
51.
See Evidence 22 in this chapter.
52.
See also G.G. Stokes, Queen's College 1862-1962, pp. 241-42.
THE CHINA KEVIEWo
EDUCATION
Even to the most sanguine in discerning the signs of a renascence in China, there are mo-ments when they must view with misgiving the direction which the new growth is tak-ing. It is as true of the nation as it is of the individual that all growth must proceed from within outwards, from the centre to the circumference. The stir of present political change may cause us to forget and the dust which it raises prevent our seeing this cardinal truth, but let the clear light of history be turning upon the past and the springs of every religious reformation, of every social and political revolution, will be found, not in the despotic acts of kings and rulers, but in the hearts and minds of the people. Surely then it is one of the first lessons of history that a Government should take heed that the regenerative influences are kept pure and the young national life wisely trained.
It must be remembered that China, while one of the oldest, is still one of the youngest of the nations. Fortunate for her if she will accept the lessons of the past and ap-propriate the blessings of modern civiliza-tion untainted by the bitterness of the experience which has taught others. To have an army and a navy is well; to adopt telegraphs and railways is also well. But what, after all, are these material things but fringes on the skirts of true progress.
IN CHINA.
China imagines that this is all we have to teach her and complacently she finds the lesson easy. The deeper lesson which she has failed to learn is, that no trust can be placed on external agencies for a real national advance. The foundations must be laid more deeply in the education of the people.
In education, be it noted, and not in the
mere diffusion of knowledge, necessary
though that be.
There can be no complaint of the pro-
gress made in this direction during recent
years. A body of learned men have applitd
themselves to the task with an enthusiasm
of devotion which is beyond praise, and the
inexorable march of events has been on
their side, opening up paths for their efforts
with a rapidity which would have seemed
incredible to the most sanguine a few years
ago. And the result of it all is disappoint-
ing in the extreme. The nation, in its
relations with foreigners, and in its own
development, remains substantially the
same. If there be a change, it is the
change of veneer; the essential characteris-
tics of the people continue unaltered. It is
an old fallacy, and only the loud voice of
the socialist makes us forget how often it
has been exposed, to suppose that civiliza-
tion inevitably follows at the heels of the
spread of knowledge. It is useless to ex-
Illus. 1.3 C.S. Addis, 'Education in China', The China Review XVIII (1889-90), 205-12.
INTRODUCTION
206 THE CHIttA
pect people to do the right simply because they are told it is right to do it. Civiliza-tionMepends, not on the mere illumination of the understanding, but upon the educa-tion of heart and mind. For what is the aim of education in its broadest sense but civilization! Not the opulence and ease which too often pass by that name, but that higher civilization of which Martineau speaks, ( neither superior clothes, nor finer houses, nor richer wines, nor even more destructive gunpowder, but a noble system of ideas and aspirations possessing a com-munity.'
In education, or rather the want of it, lies the danger ahead. To her new foreign relations and responsibilities China has been rudely awakened ; to the canker at the root of her national life she slumbers uncon-scious. In no country in the world is the faculty of letters held in more esteem ; nowhere is closer and more constant atten-tion paid to intellectual cultivation. But never have such esteem and attention been worse applied or more ill directed. In truth Chinese education is—pace the sinologues —no education at all. It is no * leading out of' but a leading back to. Instead of ex-panding the intelligence, it contracts it; in-stead of broadening the sympathies, it nar-rows them ; instead of making a man honest, intelligent and brave, it has produced few who are not cunning, narrow-minded and pusillanimous. That the Government, in selecting the chief officers of State, should cull its choicest flowers from such a nursery and thus perpetuate this rotten system, is only on aggravation of the evil. .The literary graduate,' says Wells Williams,
* will be found deficient in most branches of general learning, ignorant of hundreds of common things and events in his national history, which the merest schoolboy in the Western World would be ashamed not to know in his.' And from the literary graduates is the Civil Service of China re-cruited ! It is natural that those, who have devoted much time and labour to the study
Illus-13(
REVIEW.
of a language and literature like Chinese, should be disposed to overrate the value of that which has cost them so much industry and effort to acquire, and occasional en-comiums of the Chinese methods of instruc-tion are only what we might expect. We are told, for instance, that it is eminently suited to the present system of government. Such an argument only appeals to those who believe the present system of government cannot be improved. To ourselves the state-ment bears its own condemnation. It must be a bad system which produces such a bad government. The truth is that if the com-parative test be applied, almost the only merit which can be claimed for Chinese education is that it strengthens the memory, and whether it is worth while going through so much to learn so little, as the charity-boy said when he got to the end of the alphabet, is, as Mr. Welier observed, a matter of taste. Learning by rote is not learning at all. Non
est loquendum sed(juberna?idumi and until the
navigators are taught the principles on which they may lay a true course, the ship of State is likely to be but indifferently steered.
For all purposes of comparison India naturally rises to the mind as the correlative of China. And indeed India, with her 70,000 schools and universities, with her nearly two millions of scholars and her annual ex-penditure upon education of over ￡1,600,000 sterling, has many a lesson to teach China. But it is unnecessary to go so far afield for an example of what may be, and, we hope, soon will be done in China. On her shores is a model in miniature for a system of national education. The subject is so im-portant that we may be pardoned if we proceed to consider it somewhat in detail.
In the wondrous history of Hongkong there is nothing more remarkable than the record of her educational progress. Half a century ago the island was peopled by a few half savage settlers steeped in ignorance and superstition. To-day it supports a population of 160,000 and passes annually through its harbour a gross tonnage,
second only to that of London and Liverpool. Of this enormous population -—enormous, that is to say, considering the island's insignificant size-it is computed that about 154,000 are Chinese. A foreign Government, by the impartial ad-ministration of wise and just laws, lias made this dot ou the ocean so attractive, that, for the sake of a life which miy be lived in peaceful prosperity, tens of thousands of a race attached to their native soil and na-turally averse from emigration have voluntarily expatiiated themselves. So much has been done. It may, however, be argued that the Colony owes its prosperity to these immigrants from China, that on them depends the continuance of its pro-gress, and that as raueh to the recipient as to the giver of freedom and fair-play its success is due. The more important question
‧arises—What provision is being made for the future? What has the Government, which has accomplished so much for the protected aliens, done for their children ? Has it been merely a balancing of accounts, or can we point to benefits which give a foreign Government a right to the title pater-nal to which the rulers of China can in comparison lay no claim ? The Educational Reports which the Inspector of Schools issues from year to year are the warrant to that title.
It is estimated that there are more than 17,000 children in Hongkong between 6 and 16 years of age. To provide for these there are about 200 schools open with a grand total of 8700 scholars, of which 6700 attend schools established or aided by Government in some form or other ; and even the re-maining 2000 children are on the roll of schools which are at least exempt from rates and taxes. There are thus about b\ per cent. of the population at school, as compared with 13 per cent, in England and Wales and 9 per cent, in Ireland. In India'the proportion is still, we believe, under 1 per cent. Considering that education in Hongkong is entirely vo-luntary, the comparison is not much to its
Illus. 1.3
IN CHINA. 207
disadvantage,and this will be the more readi-ly admitted by anyone who has seen for him-self the entirely inadequate nature of the ac-commodation provided. The present school buildings can with difficulty seat one-eighteenth of the population and should be trebled in number. We do not mean to say that such increased accommodation is im-mediately required, but school seats for one-sixth of the total population is the thing to be aimed at. Meanwhile a good deal is being done. New schools are erected grad-ually, and the spacious Central School for which we have waited so long must surely be approaching completion. But there is still urgent need of more and better build-ings. Over 8000 children continue un-educated. The majority of these are Chi-nese girls, and, in the opiuion of Dr. Eitel (than whom no one knows better the wants, or has more at heart the interests, of educ-ation) * one of the principal causes of their remaining uneducated year by year is the fact that the school accommodation hitherto provided is far below the requirements of the case.,
It is evident that no scheme of education can be considered complete which does not lay special stress on the importance of female education, and no system is adequate which does not provide a careful training for the future wives and mothers of the race. This is a department which the missionaries, those pioneers of all true progress in China, have made peculi-arly their own, and the success of their efforts stands in striking contrast to the abortive attempts of the Government. It is argued that a dual difficulty stands in the way; from those in the first place, whose native habits of thought have led them to consider woman an inferior animal for whom intellectual training is unnecessary and unsuitable ; and, secondly, from those who fear lest the prevailing system of concubin-age should derive an impetus from the enhanced attractiveness of girls who had acquired some of the accomplishments and
208 THE CHINA
refinements of their instructors. The first objection is, of course, sustained by native opinion only. With a few exceptions the leading Chinese are, it appears, opposed to female, education, and as ratepayers the opinion is perhaps entitled to a modicum of weight for a time. It is better that an idea so irrational should be supplanted by the slow growth of enlightenment rather than be torn up by the roots by Government action. Time is on our side and even now there are not wanting signs that the op-position is being overcome. The writer has in his mind's eye at least one large girls' school in Hongkong where the demand for wives is in excess of the supply, and anyone acquainted with educational work in China could multiply parallel cases. And it is only natural to suppose that men educated themselves will not long continue to tolerate illiterate spouses. With regard to the question of concubinage there may be room for divergence of opinion, but to our mind the reasoning must be radically unsound which makes ignorance an ally of morality and sees in culture a new foe to virtue. Still these old-world notions die hard. There are certainly as many girls as boys of school age in Hongkong, but in the Government schools the proportion of female pupils to male is only 1 to 18. The missionaries, as we have said, have been more successful. In the Grant-in-aid Schools now the propor-tion is as 1 to 2. There is little doubt that equal numbers will soon be reached.
Turning from the number of learners to the subjects taught, we find ourselves on more debatable ground. We have alluded before to the Grant-in-Aid schools. These com-prise some 60 Mission schools, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, which submit them-selves to Government inspection and to a cer-tain extent to Government control. In return they receive a capitation grant for the number of scholars in average attendance and special grants, based on definite results ascer-tained by examination, for all scholars who succeed in passing the standard
REVIEW.
set by the Inspector of Schools. The examination is practically confined to the
* three Rs,' with the addition of needlework for the girls. In the Government schools a wider field is covered. History, Geography, and Composition are taught with the addition of Mathematics, Algebra and Mensuration for the older b .ys. This is not a very high standard, but it must not be forgotten that Chinese is taught as well as English, and the mental strain involved must be considerable. It is more disappoint-ing to confess that apparently no pro-vision is made for physical training. For our own part we would rather see more play and less work.
With regard to moral teaching the Go-vernment is punctiliously impartial. Quite needlessly so, for the Christian moral teach-ing given by the Mission schools is found not to have the slightest effect upon their popularity. The Chinese appear to be quite indifferent upon the subject of religious teaching, but deeply concerned with the capabilities of the teacher. It has been proved that a Government school cteteris paribus has no chance against a neighbour-ing Mission school, if the teaching given at the latter is believed to be superior. To a Chinaman the objection to religious teaching is not to be weighed in the balance against a reduction in school fees. Our experience in India has been so different, and there is so much popular misconception on the sub-ject, that it is as well to emphasize the fact of Chinese toleration. Teach the children well intellectually, says the Chinaman, and morally you may teach them what you please. The ethics of Confucianism and Christianity are not so far asunder that any sensible man need object to his children being instructed in both, and apart from any objection on the part of parents it does not seem to us possible to teach a foreign language and literature and at the same time to eliminate the ethics in which both are steeped. Religious teaching is, of course, a different matter altogether and
Illus. 13 (Continued)
EDUCATION
clearly outside the functions of ah alien Government.
Our survey of education in Hongkong has brought before us some deficiencies and blunders for which the future has abundant prospect of reform. There is an evidence of life and health which shows no sign of con-tent with what has been done, but rather a rigorous resolve to press forward. The educational methods of only a few years ago are rapidly becoming obsolete, and new methods are taking their place. The result is a state of transition, in which the attempt to combine the old instruction with the new has a tendency to overstrain the youthful capacity, and there is a real danger of cram-ming taking the place of instruction. The science as well as the art of teaching has yet to be formulated. What to teach and how to teach it, are questions which have never been satisfactorily answered. To say that education has for its object to com-pletely develop a man physically, psychi-cally and ethically, is only to show how far short of the ideal are all our empirical efforts. If this be true of the present state of education at home, it need not surprise us if we meet with confusion worse con-founded in China, where a new disorganiz-ing factor is introduced in the necessity of teaching the Chinese their own language. The knowledge of English is spreading and will spread, but whether the Chinaman of the future is to acquire his science and philosophy through the medium of his own, or a foreign tongue, is a problem which does not affect the Chinaman of to-day. It seems inevitable, that to become a useful citizen, and to fit himself for practical life, he at any rate must submit to the drudgery of learning both languages, and, to a certain extent, of acquainting himself with their literature. There is yet much native pre-judice to be overcome before this fact is generally recognised. Out of 97 schools under Government no less than 77 schools, at-tended by 4000 scholars, give a Chinese education in the Chinese language, or,
Illus. 13 a
IN CHINA. 209
in other words, three-fifths of all the children
in Government aided schools receive a non-
English education^ Many of these are
schools conducted by missionaries Who do
not consider the teaching of English a branch
of their work, and the tuition being free a
large number of scholars are attracted to
them. It is now generally admitted that a
child should receive at least a grounding in
his own language before he proceeds to the
study of another, and Anglo-Chinese schools,
which are attended by the older boys, are
doubtless largely recruited from these
primary Chinese institutions. It is to be
feared, however, that public opinion in re-
gard to foreign education, especially of girls,
is still very apathetic. * There is,' says Dr.
Eitel, ' it seems, no appreciable demand,
among the purely Chinese girls of the
Colony for English teaching.' It will come
in time. Meanwhile we must be content to
reverse the laws of economics, and create a
demand by providing a supply. All the
experience of the past has shewn us, that,
if the schools are forthcoming, we shall not
long lack scholars to fill them.
And now we come to the important ques-
tian of expenditure. The cost of education
offers no exception to the enhanced price of
all luxuries abroad. Paterfamilias grumbles
at the extravagance of School Boards and
wonders if the Education Grant has reached
finality at last, now that the rates have
approached a shilling in the pound, and
each child costs the Government nearly
eighteen shillings per annum. What would
he say, we wonder, to the $45,518 expended
by the Hongkong Government in 1888, or to
an average cost of $7.27 per scholar. The
Central School costs the Government $19.53
per head, or, if the expense be calculated on
the average daily attendance, $26.48. The
other Government schools cost $7.01 and the
aided village schools $4.19 per scholar,
while the Missionary Grant in Aid schools
received $3.89 per head. If our memory
serves us aright, there is now no distinctively
free Government education in Hongkong,
INTRODUCTION
210 THE CHINA REVIEW.
with the exception perhaps of one or two small primary schools, which may still exist as relics of the much-abused Pope Hennessy rigime. For some unaccountable reason no mention is made in the Reports of the amount drawn from school fees. On sear-ching back, however, to 1885 we find in the case of the Central School that the sum of $5273 for school fees was deducted from the expenditure of that year. The average attendance was then 437, which gives about $12 as the average fee paid by each scholar. This is only a rough estimate, but if 1885 may be taken as an average year, we find that the pupils contribute two-fifths and the Government three-fifths of the Central School
expenditure.
Turning to the Missionary Societies, we find that out of 63 schools the grant gained in 1888 sufficed to cover the expense of two only. The total expenditure amounted to $49,209, and the Government Grant to $32,362. With 4385 scholars on the roll this would represent $7.48 per head. It would be interesting to know how much of this sum was paid by each scholar, and how much was contributed by the various Mis-sionary Societies, but on the whole subject of school fees Dr. Eitel is provokingly silent. It is, however, a matter on which it is of some importance to gain exact information. The missionary system of providing free education has been of great service in the past, and has many advantages still. But it may be questioned whether the system has not been pushed too far, and whether the pauperizing influence exerted may not outweigh its undoubted benefits. In those cases where educational zeal has induced mis-sionaries to bribe scholars into their schools, —and unhappily such cases do exist— however much we may respect the motive, a practice so hurtful and demoralizing cannot be too strongly condemned. It may well be doubted also if education obtained by such means will much benefit
the learner. We would rather see China
ignorant than lost to self-respect. This
above all,—above even the necessity of national education organized, fos-tered and controlled by the State—this above all is the lesson which Hongkong has to teach us, that while the Chinese are ready and willing to pay for their education, it is worse than i'dle to teach them for nothing. What is required is not State pauperization but State aid.
It may be argued that at this point our analogy fails us, and that Hongkong,.from its commercial and political importance, occupies a unique position, and offers no fair parallel to any part of China. That in fact the great compradoric prizes, and the more modest interpreterships and clerkships in the Government Service, which are open to successful students, offer an incentive to education in Hongkong which is not to be found elsewhere. This is precisely the point at which we have been aiming. Under the old system the conditions were similar. Why may they not be applied to the new education ? At present the plums of the
Chinese Civil Service are theirs to a great extent who have achieved success by long and arduous study in useless and effete branches of learning. Is it to be supposed that such devotion would be found wanting, if for the old system a sound and practical course of education were substituted ? The Hongkong Anglo-Chinese schools are over-crowded with Chinese ready to pay $3 or
3.50 a month, and willing to prosecute their studies for an average period of seven years, simply because there is a reasonable cer-tainty, that, at the end of it, a successful examination will ensure employment with a salary of from $15 to 40 a month and a reasonable prospect of a future increase in pay. The love of learning for its own sake is no more to be found in China than in Europe. Education indeed requires no ad-ventitious aids, but it is idle to expect, in the first instance, either a Chinaman, or anybody else, to pay for learning which carries no material benefits in its train. Who can doubt that the modest salaries paid
Illus. 13 (Continued)
EDUCATION IN CHINA.
to native preachers and teachers form by far the most permanent attraction of Missionary schools ? The danger lies, per-haps, in that very attractiveness, and the inducement it offers to unworthy men to feign religion for the sake of gain. The class of men suited for proselytism must always be extremely limited, and a healthier stimulus will be found in the industrial schools, as yet in embryo, but destined, we believe, to play an important part in the civilization of China.
We again repeat that the Chinese need no charity, and that they are eager to learn and ready to pay for an education with a definite money value. To ignore these cardinal facts is to impair the usefulness and ultimately to sap the vitality of any Anglo-Chinese institution, however admir-able its system, or wise its administration ; to frankly recognise them is to lay a stable foundation on which the loftiest and most ambitious educational structure may safely be reared. To the cry for new schools and new learning must be joined the demand for new inducements to its acquisition. The stately edifice at Tientsin which is now ap-proaching completion is worthy of the great statesman who founded it. It remains now for him to make the Po Men Shen Yuan the new centre of educational reform. He has shown a marvellous perspicacity in dealing with new conditions, and no one knows better than he that the old order of things has passed away. The naval and military schools already established have proved that European professors of the highest ability and attainments can be easily and cheaply procured. Let him give them a free hand, and he may count with safety on an annual supply of Chinamen, well fitted to fill medical and scientific posts in the naval, military and civil services, and to remove the reproach which has long attend-ed the want of any adequate attempt to supply the deficiency. Doubtless the new college will be endowed by the Viceroy. Endowments have their use, but the fear
of their abuse makes them a doubtful blessing. He will accomplish a greater and more lasting benefit, if he will bring his influence to bear in introducing a new system of examinations, or in making the new learning a prominent branch of the old system. But it matters little what particular method he adopts. He is an opportunist and his advance will almost certainly be along the line of least resis-tance. Whatever the means, the result which must be obtained is, that the success-ful students shall count with certainty up-on obtaining at once a lucrative appoint-ment under his Government. Our own Home and Indian Civil Service competi-tions are an illustration of our meaning. Fix the standard as high as possible; multiply the subjects of study; increase the fees and extend the curriculum to seven or eight years; make the final test as you please:—the students will never be daunted, if only the certainty of a well-paid appointment awaits success. Once this is assured, the difficulties will vanish. China has too long been engaged in putting the cart before the horse; too much occupied with forming paper schemes of education, with no clear idea of the prizes to be gained by those who engage in them. A bitter distrust has been begotten of such dealings, which it will take years to overcome. What are the results of the Chinese Educa-tional Commission of 1872 ? It was never denied, that of 120 lads who were educated in America, there was hardly one that did not prove himself an earnest and success-ful student. We know now the rewards which the mother country had in store for them. Treated on their return with con-tempt and neglect, they are now to be found scattered about the country, the more fortunate in foreign service, the others em-ployed as clerks in arsenals, or in the rail-way and telegraph offices. If the new colleges can promise no better results than these, they had better not be establish-ed at all. If, on the other hand, their
Illus. 13 (Continued)
INTRODUCTION
47
212 THE CHINA EEVIEW.
examinations are to carry with them a founder will go down to posterity with a literary or scientific degree, and an ap- fresh title to the name of patriot, more1 pointment, to be coveted both for the posi- solid more secure, and more real than all tion and salary it confers, then indeed the the magnificent services of Li Hung Chang new education will prove the beginning of a have yet won for him. new era in China, and the name of its C. S. ADDIS.
Illus. 1.3 (Continued)
on the traditional lines; but the local atmosphere was such that the de-mand was different. For the parents of the students were mostly traders; they did not expect their sons to become scholars; all they required was that their children should acquire a good knowledge of Chinese and then learn English in order to carry on their business or start new ones. Thus the 'classical' environment was entirely absent.
21. Hongkong Daily Press, Thursday, 31 January 1901, p. 3, letter in the correspon-dence column from 'A Parent', referring to the speech of Bishop Hoare at the Diocesan Boys' School prize distribution, on 29 January 1901.53
The sentiments expressed in this letter were quite widespread among the European population, especially the 'bong-ban', or lower class Europeans who could not afford to send their children 'home' for schooling. One might notice that the writer chooses to use the technique of argument by comparison in a way somewhat similar to that of Gutzlaff in 1845 and that opinions about the 'duty' of the Government have changed since 1877.^
53.
See Chapter 4, Evidence 15(a) for a report of the Bishop's speech, Evidence 15(b) for editorial comment and Evidence 15(c) for a local Chinese reaction.
54.
See Evidence 6 in this chapter, for Gutzlaff's approach and Evidence 14 for an 1877 opinion of the duties of Government. The Chronicle sections for 1844,1855,1870-72 and 1900-1901 in the appropriate chapters below, offer information to show that the concern to establish separate schools for children of the European population in Hong Kong was a recurring one. Bishop Hoare's opinions were certainly consistent with the earliest Anglican leaders in Hong Kong. In 1847 the first Colonial Chaplain, the Rev. Vincent Stanton, wrote, 1 venture to express my very firm belief that any indiscriminate union of English and Native pupils in the same class would greatly impede the progress of both.' (CO 129/19, p. 253). George Smith, a few years later to become the first Anglican Bishop in Hong Kong, recognized the frailties of both main segments of the Hong Kong population: The lowest dregs of native society flock to the British Settlement, in the hope of gain or plunder... Two other serious disadvantages to Hong Kong [as a place for missionary endeavours], how-
One would imagine that the first duty of the Government would be to provide for the English children of the Colony an opportunity for receiv-ing an education equivalent to that imparted by a reputable school at home, in an institution from which Asiatics are excluded. Although I am prepared to admit that our local masters are competent and conscientious men, it is impossible to accept that the English boy is as well trained with the Chinese in his class as he would be without them. One is struck with the great want of interest the English lads here take in their schools — their one desire seems to be to get away from it [sic]. This may be said to be unreasonable, but there is something in that want of interest which should receive serious consideration. Another important point that weighs with many parents is the question of contact. It is impossible to conceive that European lads can benefit morally from intimate contact with Chinese boys, and I use the term in its broadest sense.
.. . If Tientsin, Shanghai, Chefoo, and even Weihaiwei can possess such well-established and excellent schools for the education of European children alone, surely it cannot be argued that such a necessity does not exist in Hongkong. It is impossible nowadays for many residents to send their children to Europe to be educated, and in such a city as this, it should of all places in the east be unnecessary. Hongkong should not only be the centre of primary education among the scattered British communities in the Far East, but it should also furnish facilities for advanced education
22. From T. Kirkham's Treface to his Revised Edition' of Chambers' English Cantonese Dictionary (1907).
This extract offers interesting evidence about informal education in Hong Kong, indicating the existence of a group ofsinologues, similar in ways to the 'Orientalists' of the British Raj, composed of missionaries, government officials of varying rank and business-men. It may also suggest that, in Hong Kong's case, a revision needs to be made to interpretations based upon concepts of Colonialism as Cultural Imperialism.
ever, are the frequent spectacle of European irreligion, and the invidious regulations of police ... ' (G. Smith, A Narrative of an Exploratory Visit to Each of the Consular Cities of China, 1847 (reprinted by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Co., Taipei, 1972), pp. 508 and 512). Bishop Alford supported the public campaign for a separate school for European children in the early 1870s and attempted to use St. Paul's College for this purpose. Though this might seem to provide the basis for an Anglican 'tradition' in favour of separate education for the different races, offering a strong contrast with the more integrationist approach of the Roman Catholics, it should be noted that leading Anglican schools, such as the Diocesan schools, were well known for their admission policy which accepted Eurasian children as well as Chinese, European and other ethnic groups.
INTRODUCTION
49
I still vividly retain very clear recollection of a periodical after-dinner meeting which I was privileged to attend, in the middle eighties, at the former London Mission House, where, round a lamp-lighted table, under the personal presidency of the then venerable head of the London Mission (Dr. John Chalmers), sat Dr. Faber, Mr. J.H. Stewart Lockhart (now His Honour the Commissioner for Weihaiwei), Mr. (now Dr.) G.H. Bateson-Wright, Headmaster of Queen's College, Mr. Addys of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank, the late Mr. A. Falconer, Second Master of the old Govern-ment Central School, and others, eagerly discussing, assiduously compar-ing, commenting on, and revising, translations of portions of a minor Chinese classic made, since the previous session, by individual members of the class ...
23. 'Particulars of the Offices of three Assistant Mistresses, Education Depart-ment, now vacant in the Colony of Hong Kong'(August 1913), in CO 129/ 404, pp. 395-97.
This is a specification which E.A. Irving designed in Hong Kong to be sent to the Crown Agents in London so that a job-advertisement could appear in Britain for teaching posts in Hong Kong. As a historical source, it offers information about conditions of work for expatriate teachers, as well as evidence about the assumptions of the time. It also indicates that Hong Kong was not too much of a back-water in early childhood education, at least. Maria Montessori opened her first Casa dei Bambini (House of Childhood) in Rome on 6 January 1907. The publication date of her first important book in English?5 (upon which the 'Montessori system' was based) was 1912.
1. Duties of Office, and qualifications required for their performance.
Duties
To teach English children (girls and young boys) in combined Ele-mentary and Secondary Schools. Mistresses are liable to be trans-ferred to schools where similar instruction is given to Chinese girls, but such transfers are rare.
Qualifications
A. Essential.
(1)
Ability to teach
(a)
Arithmetic.
(b)
Religious Knowledge.
55. Anne E. George (trans.), The Montessori Method (London: Heinemann, 1912).
(c)
History.
(d)
English language and literature.
(e)
Geography. up to the standard of the Senior Oxford Local.
(2)
This ability and their general ability as teachers should be insured by the possession of the following:
A Cambridge Teacher's Certificate, or an Oxford or London University Diploma to teach in Secondary Schools.
(3)
The candidates must also be acquainted with kindergarten methods. A Froebel certificate should be considered a strong qualification. Successful candidates should (if they have hith-erto had no experience thereof) endeavour to get a practical knowledge of the Montessori system before leaving England.
B.
A thorough ability to teach as many as possible of the subjects named in the next paragraph should be had by the selected candi-dates between them. It is not at all necessary that each candidate should be able to teach them all; but it is very desirable that each should be able to teach, at least 2 in Group I, and 2 or more, in Group II. The candidates should be selected so that the subjects of each candidate will supplement those of the others.
The subjects are:
Group I French CDirect' method). Sewing. Swedish Drill.
Group II Music (Piano). Domestic Economy. Drawing (Modern Method). German. Latin (Elementary and least essential).
C. A cultured voice and manner are essential.
D. Age. Not very material. 25 to 30 years by preference.
2. Salary of Office
￡200 rising to ￡230 in the event of the mistress being placed on the permanent establishment at the termination of her agreement.
INTRODUCTION
3. Allowances, quarters and other circumstances affecting the value of the Office. The agreement will be for 3 years from the date of arrival in the Colony, with half-pay on the outward voyage.
One of the vacant appointments carries with it free partly furnished quarters at the Peak, as soon as the Peak School is built, and meanwhile in lieu thereof an allowance of $600 per annum. Private tuition is allowed by permission of the Director of Education.
4. Nature, number and amount ofsecurities required, and mode of giving them.
Nil.
5. Whether free passage is provided for the person and his [sic] family.
Second class in mail steamer or via Siberia; or first class in 'outside' boat, on engagement; and return passage at the end of three years, if en-gagement is not renewed for other reasons than misconduct. A return passage will also be provided before the expiration of 3 years if she is incapacitated from further service by mental or physical disability.
24.
Steps (School Magazine of the Diocesan Boys' School) 3 (8) (January 1938) (Illus.1.4).
25.
Extract from the transcript of a tape-recorded interview with Mr Rufus Huang, 18 February 1977.
Oral history provides fascinating insights in thefield of education. The example below is taken from an interview with the first Principal of what became a leading Chinese Christian secondary school in Kowloon. The interview was conducted in the Vice-Chancel-lor's Lodge of the University of Hong Kong, which was then the home of the son of the interviewee. Confirmation of data provided by the interview may be sought through a type of triangulation with, for example, official Government archives and such school-based sources as 50: Munsang College Golden Jubilee (printed by Sun Tai Printing Co., 1976), especially ppA0-43.
... The people in Kowloon City were interested in developing lands to build up a community like Kowloon Tong. That was the original purpose of the Chinese business life there. The people complained, saying that, if you want to start a good village, like Kowloon Tong, you should have a good school. So these people began to look for a Principal to lead their school. Parents were primarily interested in English. They wanted their children to study English. At the time, I was a teacher in St. Stephen's College. I taught English and Mathematics and some Science. Kowloon City at that time — before 1926 — was undeveloped. They started to fill out the sea. They reclaimed land, mainly for business purposes . . .
Senior Prefect:— Senior Boarder's School Prefects :-
Boarder's Prefects:-
lp Yee Prefect:—Kaan Wah Tuen
Chang Shou Kee Cheng Sou Chee Cheung, O. V Fisher, E. Fok, P. Hooi Cheng Weng Hui Kwok Hoi Kaan Che Kin Kaan Che Wan Leung Kiu Yue Matthews, C. N. Moo Peng Khoon Prata, A. J. M. Turner, W. H. Wong Man Hung Wong Pak Chuen Yim Tsaan Hong Chiu, C. Derkach, G. Goloobeff, G. Kaploon, P Lay, F. Ng Shiu Hee Poon Chee Pui
Au Yeung Kwong Ho
D. Crary Fisher, E. Hui Sai Fun Ko Wing Kau Leung Hing Luii Leung Ping Lun Matthews, C. N. Wong Cheong Kit Derkach, G. Tai Kok Kwat-
— 2
Illus. 1.4 Pages from Steps 3 (8) (January 1938).
INTRODUCTION
Magasibe Committee:
Editorial:—Ip Yee, Kaan Che Wan, C. N. Matthews.
General:—O. Cheung, E. Fisher, Hui Sai Fun, Kaan Wah Tuen, F. Lay, Ng Shiu Hee, Wong Cheong Kit.
We comgiratolaltes
Mr. and Mrs. Y. S. Chan on their marriage. Rev. and Mrs. L. L. Nash on the birth of a daughter. Mr. and Mrs. E. Shea on their marriage. Mr. and Mrs. R. Lee on their marriage. Mr. and Mrs. Huang Yen Cheng on their marriage,
We welcomes
Mr. S. K. Fung to the staff. Mr. E. C. Thomas back from leave. Mr. F. C. Whitfield, an old boy who has temporarily
been a welcome member of the staff. Mr. P. S. Cassidy, secretary of the D. B. S. Committee, back from leave. Mr. C. S. Sollis, the new Inspector of English Schools, who visited us in November. Mr. Sloss, the new Vice-Chancellor of the University.
Mrs. Hamilton, who is in Hong Kong again after leave in England.
We bid farewell tot
Mr. D. I. Luard, who went on leave in July.
Sir W. W. Hornell, who retired from the University in November. He was always interested in the D.B.S. and we lose a good friend.
We sympathise witfus
Mrs. Prew on the death of her father, in retirement in England after many years of faithful service in Hong Kong, where both he and his family have many friends and close connection with the D.B.S. and D.G.S.
— a —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
Messrs. W. N. Thomas and Philip Tarn, on the tragic death of their sister.
Kaan Sze Chiu and his brothers on the sad death of their father, Mr. Kaan Tat Choi, one of Hong Kong's leaders in Christian and business circles.
The families of Miss Massey, a former teacher on our staff, and Mr. Moyhing, both of whom died recently.
Old Boys News.
Ko Fook Wing has written from Queen's College, Cambridge, and Chen King Sang from London, where he is studying at the London School of Economics.
They are both doing well, but are delighted to hear from old D.B.S. friends in Hong Kong and China.
C. I. Stapleton and the V. and E. Frith are other old boys now in England from whom news has been received lately.
Chui Ki Fan had the misfortune to be severely injured in the bomb outrage at Sincere's in Shanghai. We wish him speedy and complete recovery.
Ha Kit Wing writes from Lingnan University, where the following old boys are studying:—
Tsai Hui Fa, Cheung Wai Chee, Wong Man Hoi, Ha Kit Wing, Shui Chai Hee, Leung Yuk Hon, Cheng Kwong Yue, Poon Kon Pui, A. J. Hulse, Wong Kam Ho, Tan Kung Hung> Wong Kam Pui, Wong Shui Keong, R. Mok, Der Nam Cheung.
Horace Chang, Wong King Ming and J. Dudley, all former Senior Boarders' Prefects, write, the first from Jamaica and the other two from Shanghai. Chang has started a Chinese Club in Kingston, and Dudley is working as Radio Announcer.
Eric Rapley has been in Hong Kong again recently after several months' absence from the Colony on the S. S. Rosalie Moller, of which he is wireless operator.
R. A. Gerrard is still doing well at Rugby Football in England.
— 4 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
INTRODUCTION
‧HMB
SPEECH DAY
This took place on July 9th, the last day of school, and once again the weather was very kind to us. A large number of visitors attended, and the success of the occasion was greatly helped by the presence of H.E. the Officer Administering the Government and Mrs. N. L. Smith, who kindly presented the prizes.
Music was provided by the band of the Royal Ulster Rifles and many people enjoyed watching and listening to them.
Each class had a display of hobbies and handiwork in its own room, and the Class 1 magazine, "Wings," was on sale, together with the school magazine.
Tea was provided in various parts of the building.
The Hon. Mr. M. K. Lo was a distinguished visitor whom we gladly welcomed, and he and the Bishop, as Chair-man, and H.E. the Officer Administering the Government spoke. The Headmaster presented his report and speeches of thanks were made by Kaan Che Wan and W. Lau.
The singing of the Hymn and the School Song sounded as enthusiastic as usual and were a prominent part of the programme.
— 5 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
D. 0. B, A.
Old Boys will be interested to learn that since the last issue of "Steps" in July this year, the Old Boys Association has established a Mutual Aid Fund, administered by a Board of Trustees, to assist old boys of the School in need of help of a temporary nature. This is one of the reasons for the existence of our Association. Mr. George She is in charge of the Fund, and any member washing to contribute towards this Fund should forward donations or communicate with him. In addition there is also an Employment Bureau which seeks to place boys in suitable positions. Mr. She would be glad if those who know of any vacancies would communicate with him at 4a, Des Voeux Road, Central.
Encouraged by the success of the joint Social and Dance held at the Rose Room, Peninsula Hotel towards the end of May this year, in conjunction with the D.O.G.A. the Committee will be arranging another event along similar lines at the beginning of the year. There will be enter-tainment in the form of cards and mah jong for those who do not dance.
A. G. F. PREW
SHOE POLISHING CLUB
The idea of a shoe polishing club was suggested by a few of the School boarders. Approval of the scheme and permission to operate in the school having been granted by the headmaster, the members of the club have started to raise money by polishing shoes. All the money raised will be devoted entirely to the War Relief Fund. It is hoped that other schools will follow the example we have set and start clubs of their own with the same object in view.
The committee of the club wish to take this opportunity to thank all those who have so willingly helped to make the club a success.
WONG CHEONG KIT
— 17 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
INTRODUCTION
"N
Keep your books free from
the ravages of cockroaches and
silverfish with
n/\Gvr:Mzii:'5 BOOK VAMLSH
TO PREVENT THE ATTACKS J ~ OF ROACHES AND INSECTS J.
2 oz. 4 oz. 50 cts. 90 cts.
Allow iKc >arni4i
<*s^^f^
jACKENZlt
Obtainable at
THE COLONIAL DISPENSARY
PEDDER STREET Hong Kong.
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
THE CHINESE PLAY
A concert was held in our school hall on the eve of the Double Ten to raise money for medical supplies for the wounded in North China. Out of the whole programme that night, there was only one Chinese play which was performed by the boarders of the school. This was done because the Chinese who did not understand English could get some benefit out of the Concert. It shows also our patriotism to our own country, China. Because of our enthusiasm in having a play for the concert Mr. Y. S. Chan, a member of the staff, was kind enough to suggest a story and to direct a performance of "The Lady's Affair".
I think most of you saw this play, therefore I shall describe the story briefly. Here is an outline of the play:—
1st Scene
Members were relaxing in a club, reading newspapers. One of them suddenly discovered an advertisement saying that a lady wished to have a boy friend. After the news became known members left the Club one after the other, each saying to the others as he left, that he had an appoint-ment.
2nd Scene
Members went to pay a visit to the lady one after the other but the lady turned them all out for she had a boy friend already.
This play was merely a comedy and the dialogue was full of jokes. We are certainly proud of our director because this play was so well done that we received a good criticism from the newspaper and the audience. We thank the audience who gave us such appreciation of our special play. The players were:—
Kaan Wah Tuen as the luckyman.
Wong Cheong Kip as the sportsman.
Au Yeung Kwong Ho as the student.
Fung Shiu Sheung as the old man.
Poon Wing Kwong as the lady.
Koo Wing Kau as the amah.
Tai Kok Kwan as the fat man.
Hui Sai Fun as the boy.
KOO WING KAU
— 18 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
INTRODUCTION
LANE, CRAWFORD LTD. §
EXCHANGE BUILDING
THE HOUSE FOR ‧ALU
5= SPORTS REQUISITES j:
TELEPHONE 28151
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
THE SCHOOL POND
The white sails of the tiny yacht lying upon the waveless lake are coloured by the golden beams of the setting sun shining through the bamboo bush. It is so calm that there is not a single ripple or wrinkle on the smooth surface of the still water. The shadow of the yacht and those of the bamboo trees are marked distinctly in the clear water. Suddenly, they swing from side to side as a drunken battalion, due to the huge waves caused by some disturbance on the distant shore, roll one after another as soldiers on parade. After the waves, then come wavelets and ripples, but soon, the lake returns to its mirror-like condition as before. The gentle wind blows and the yacht begins to sail, ploughing her way along the smooth, steep bank. Everything is so wonderful as those Alice saw in Wonder Land,—the yacht sailing without any hands on board and the mountains seem-ing to be made of a single piece of granite standing at a distance from the bank. They are not wonderful at all, for it is a toy yacht sailing in the school pond of the rock garden.
The pond, in the shape of a new moon, is situated in the heart of the rock garden ; and although small, it is the pleasure play ground for the youngsters of the school. In this small pond, they become the captains or the masters of the high seas. They soon forget the tiresome day and once more they are fresh and full of life again.
— 56 — Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
INTRODUCTION
While the gentle moonlight shines upon this beautiful scene, the toads croak, keeping the rhythm of nature's music played by the lower forms of creatures. In this charming shallow-pond, the motherly arm of moonlight and the melodious lullaby whistled by the mild breeze, there spring the flowers of water-lilies gracefully still. All this leads people's minds to dream-land and unfortunately, such pleasure only can be enjoyed by the boarders who wake up in the night.
This shows that the beauty of nature is anywhere, even in the little pond which is not noticed by boys in the school, but people, who enjoy its beauty, are few.
KAAN CHEE WAN
SCOUTS—6TH KOWLOON D.B.S.
The 6th Kowloon, D.B.S. scouts were idle for some months but settled down once more to real scouting on the return of our S.M. and A.S.M. from leave.
As many members had left during their absence we enlisted about fifteen more scouts to fill the troop and we were well on our way to Good Scouting in the near future.
Actually no real scout work was done at first, as on the return of the scout masters we ran into one of the three annual scout rallies which kept us busy in preparation.
After the rally we received news that the S.M? owing to lack of time decided to stand out and our xAS.M. filled his place and we were once more sailing smoothly. Later with only a few weeks of rest we were asked by the Scout Association of Hong Kong to join the scouts and guides of the Colony to give a grand combined display to celebrate the Coronation of King George VI, the proceeds of which were to go to King George V's memorial fund. Our troop undertook to give an item towards the programme.
Directly after this we were asked by the Heep Yunn School to help in a concert in aid of their school funds and this was our good turn as well as pleasure for the following weeks.
— 57 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
The troop was well represented at the Coronation display by Hong Kong Scouts.
We represented Canada in the pageant, had a physical training display of our own and took part in the Combined drill display.
As Canada we were very picturesque, with trappers, lumbermen, Red Indians, pioneers and, above all, a Mountie complete with horse.
Our own physical training display consisted of walking exercises, Swedish drill, tumbling and pyramids. Kenneth Knight and Maurice Sully ably acquitted themselves as funny men.
We did our part in the Combined drill manoeuvres, even though three of our members were so interested in other displays that they forgot to turn up.
We also proved ourselves as able as any troop in the dash for refreshments, (unrehearsed) and some of us had double shares.
C. N. MATTHEWS
THE DOUBLE TEN CONCERT >
Since the war-lords of Japan have started their dream of becoming the 'conquerors of the world', the Chinese under the leadership of Generalissimo Chiang Kai Shek have resisted them on the world's frontest line for the existence of their families, country and liberty as well as for the peace and justice of the world. Many brave and faithful combatants and many defenceless and innocent people were killed and wounded by the cruel and barbarous acts of the Japanese. To take care of the wounded is the duty which the Chinese behind the defensive line should bear, especially the well educated people, so the students in Hong Kong formed the Hong Kong Students Relief Association of which our school is a member.
After the first general meeting of the association with the presence of the schools' representatives, several Chinese boys in the senior classes of our school wanted to give a concert in order to raise some money for the medical Relief Fund in China. With the great help of our Headmaster, the staff and our schoolmaster, the concert was held, after ten days of preparation, on 9th October, 1937.
— 00 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
INTRODUCTION
The application for the holding of the concert, free of entertainment tax, was granted by the government.
The venue for this concert was the school hall which by eight o'clock was filled with many enthusiastic guests. The concert commenced with the singing of the hymn, "I vow to thee my country", followed by a short speech both in Chinese and England delivered by the chairman of the committee of the concert. The Headmaster .then addressed the audience stressing in his speech the compassion we should have for the wounded in the present crisis.
The next item comprised two piano solos rendered by Mr. Lindsay A. Lafford, our singing instructor. The audience listened attentively to the beautiful music and was next entertained by Miss Eva Turner who sang "The Laughing song."
The programme continued with some very humorous sketches staged by the school's scouts. In one sketch a scout was awarded a medal by his scoutmaster for his many good deeds which included looking after his neighbour's baby. Later when the scout got home he, upon being asked by his mother to fetch her pair of spectacles, flatly refused, saying, "Go and get them yourself!" How charity began at home!
Mr. Raymond Liu and his Hawaiian Serenaders then entertained the audience with some Hawaiian music, which was very pleasing to hear. A violin solo was next given by Raymond Chang, a member of the school.
The Chinese boarders of the school were responsible for the next item. This was a short sketch which provoked much laughter. The dialogue was in Cantonese and every boy enacted well his part. Although the cast consisted of boys only, there were two ladies in the sketch! One was a talkative amah, and the other a charming young lady! An interval of ten minutes followed.
After the interval, members of classes 1 to 4 assembled on the stage for some choral singing, conducted by the Headmaster and accompanied on the piano by Mr. Lindsay A. LafTord. They boys first sang "Sea Fever," then The Volga Boatman Song." Following the next was "The Toreadol Song" taken from the opera "Carmen."
— 61 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
Mysto 'the Memory Man5 interested the guests very much. Whilst he sat down blindfolded, with a boy and a lady (Miss Sawyer, the Headmistress of D.G.vS.) on either side of him, names of 24 different things were called out and written down on a blackboard. When this was done, Mysto could name the 24 things from beginning to the end, and then backwards, and then told any number, he could call out the thing corresponding to that number! How remarkable his memory was!
Miss Eva Turner again appeared on the stage and sang "Cherry Tree," and "Over the Mountains". The next item was a violin solo by Mr. O. Lyen; and then Mr. Gaston d'Aquino, Hong Kong's popular tenor, sang "Recondita Armonia" from the opera "Tosca". His other songs were "Mappari Tutanar" and "Tornna Sorrents."
Members of Class 3B then gave a short sketch entitled "The Ghost that Gibbered," which proved quite humorous and thrilling. The concert concluded with the School Song which many present sang heartily.
With the heartiness of the schoolmates in selling the tickets and the kindness of the artists, the night and the result were better than the ideal. The total profit was $1,586.05, in local currency after the expenditure of $88.70 had been taken out. About a week after the sum of money was sent to the Ministry of Health in Nanking by draft through the Bank of Canton and it was equal to $1,667.33 in Chinese national currency. The receipt was received forty days after the draft had been sent.
The committee and the boys of the school deeply thank our Headmaster, the staff, all the artists for their valuable help and the Connaught and Watson's Aerated Water Companies for the free supplies of aerated water and the Dairy Farm for the reduction in cost of ice-cream for sale at the concert.
To all the elder brothers and the committee of our school who had not been notified, the Committee of the Concert apologise, for the they were busily doing their tasks in pre-paring the concert.
— 62 —
Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
INTRODUCTION
DIOCESAN BOYS SCHOOL
School Fees after Chinese New Year will be as follows:—
Dayboys Boarders Entrance Fee $10 Classes 1-4 42 per quarter 14C per quarter Class 5 36 134
30 128 24 122 8 18 . 116 Illus. 1.4 (Continued)
They approached me. I was interested in something new. It was a chal-lenge. St. Stephen's College was well established at that time. They looked for me. I don't know why they looked for me. Before I came to Hong Kong to join the staff of St. Stephen's College, I was a Headmaster of a Middle School in Swato w, and so they thought I had some experience in running a school. I think that was one of the reasons why. They wanted me to come to start the school. It was not an easy job, and so I talked to my wife. We both were Christians. We talked it over from a Christian point of view. It was a good idea to start something new on a Christian basis. We had no idea about running a missionary school or anything like that.
Among the people interested in this what you call Kaitak then were two businessmen. One was Mok Kwong-sang. The other was Au Tsak-mun. They were both prominent in business in Hong Kong. So when we were ready to start, they both gave us financial support. Each one gave $10,000. We had, then, $20,000 to start the school and so I decided to use their names — Au Tsak-mun for the "Mun' and Mok Kwong-sang, the 'Sang7. That is why we called it Munsang College.
. . . We started the school on rented premises. We rented a house in Kowloon Bay, on Kaitak Bund, just by the sea, at $200 a month .. . Eddie Stewart, the St. Paul's College Principal was interested. He wanted to run the school as a St. Paul's branch. But I wanted something new, called Munsang... We started with 17 pupils and because the school was origi-nally very Chinese, based on Chinese money, and with a Chinese Princi-pal, we decided to make it typically Chinese. Because at the time, Chinese was the weaker academically in all schools — particularly in Government schools where there was practically no Chinese at all, and even in private schools, Chinese was ignored — I told my staff we must make something different. We want to make strong Chinese foundations.
.. . We started with a Middle School, not from a primary school. The pupils who wanted to come in, the Middle School students, had to have a very good foundation in Chinese .. . Not all the students who wanted to enter could get in, past the stiff entrance examination...
26. A brief description of the activities of the Tung Yi Tong from Tung Kuan district, n.d., but circa 1932; translated from a Chinese original.
The Tung Yi Tong is a typical example of a Chinese voluntary association which was
organized by people who came originally from the same district in Guangdong. Like others,
in the inter-war years, it changed the focus of its concern from ritual to social service and,
especially, to schooling for poor children.
INTRODUCTION
Background, to the running of schools by the Tung Yi Tong.
The suggestion that the Tung Yi Tong stop concentrating on the offering of sacrifices but run schools instead was put forward as early as 1916 on the initiative of Chow Cheuk Fan. Until 1919, the Chairman, Yip Leung Choi,\acting in accordance with this suggestion, began running free schools. However, at that time, the financial condition of the Tong deterio-rated. In fact, after the deduction of essential expenses, a sum of only HK$300 was left from the annual interest of the organization's funds.
The original idea was to use a hall of the Sheung Hui [Chamber of Commerce] as the school premises, but, in view of the fact that most poor children from our district were living near Sai Ying Pun, and travelling back and forward between home and school was so inconvenient, the idea was dropped. Even so, the Sheung Hui agreed to contribute $200 annually to cover part of the expenses of leasing premises. A total amount of $500 was, however, still insufficient to meet the cost of running a free school. Lau Cheuk Wah therefore suggested an unlimited expansion of the size of the Board of Directors, with each member to contribute $5 annually to-wards the running expenses of the school. At the same time, a fund-raising committee was formed, with Ho Lin Kui, Lau Sau Chin& Chan Tat Chui, Yu Wai Bun, Leung Yin Wing, Yuen Bo On, Lau Cheuk Wah, and Cho Fuk Chui as members. In this way, a sum of $2,800 was collected. Moreover, with Yip Tung Kwai carrying out further fund-raising in Macau, the total fund increased to $4,400, an amount large enough to start a free school.
Thus, Tung Yi No. 1 School was established at Second Street, in Sai Ying Pun, on 15th Ma*ch, 1921. At the outset, the registered principal was Ng Tin Bo and the honorary principals were Lo Ton Sang and Chow Siu Kei. Meanwhile, eight directors of the school were elected to become responsible for the school's administration. From then on, the Tung Yi School began to earn a high reputation among the schools of Hong Kong. Many poor children of our district have benefited from its existence. Subsequently, the Tung Yi Tong has established nine more schools.
27. Revised and augmented version of an extract from Anthony Sweeting, 'Hong Kong*, in R. Murray Thomas and T. Neville Postlethwaite (eds.), Schooling in East Asia: Forces of Change (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983), pp. 272-75.
Readers who feel more comfortable in the deductive mode and who prefer to consider historical data in the light of general 'factors' are offered the following, very tentative analysis. Those who wish to maintain the fullest possible independence in the matter of detecting trends and themes from possibly significant recurrences may wish to leave this passage until they have finished the remainder of the book. In either case, readers can
examine the material in the remainder of the book to see whether it confirms or refutes the
analysis. The original version analyzed six 'aspects' of Hong Kong's social environment consid-ered significant in the educational enterprise. This revised edition adds a seventh factor, which, though not strictly an aspect of social environment, is regarded as of some impor-tance in the shaping of Hong Kong's education. The additional factor is 'the multiplicity of agencies and arenas for decision-making'.
Face
The most instrumental force affecting schooling in Hong Kong is the Chinese concept of 'face' — the perception of one's own worth as rated by significant others. Face, or standing, can be gained, lost, saved, protected, or threatened. The concept is so pervasive — perhaps because Chinese culture is so venerable and contagious — that almost every inhabitant of Hong Kong is aware of its operation. It affects the status and efficiency of the teacher, motivates disciplinary problems among pupils, and helps or hinders decision-making on education committees. It influences chari-table donations for educational purposes, and it has been used by, for, and against the colonial administrators of Hong Kong, especially in the vari-ous efforts to extend and control schooling. Hence, it is an overarching force, enabling or direct, capable of producing change or reinforcing iner-tia, depending on the precise circumstances and on its interaction with other, often related forces. In Hong Kong, face is the founding father of a whole extended-family of concepts.
Pragmatism
Face is intimately connected with what Gunnar Myrdal termed 'higher valuations', with style, and with surface appearances. In contrast, the 'lower valuations'56, especially among the mainly Cantonese inhabitants of Hong Kong, tend to be pragmatic and to recognize the value of money57. But pragmatism and money-consciousness have not been confined to the Cantonese in Hong Kong. Complaints about the parsimoniousness of the Government and the conspicuous consumption of the most successful members of society have abounded58. For the successful and not-yet-
56.
For a discussion of this distinction between impressive-sounding goals or declarations of intent and the often co-existing earthier, more basic motives, see Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, 9th edn. (New York: Harper, 1944), pp. xlviii, 20-42, and 1027 ff.; and Brian Bullivant, Race, Ethnicity and Curriculum (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1981), pp. 96 ff.
57.
Readers may wish to examine the Evidence sections of this book for confirmation of this allegation, at least as a commonly-held opinion. As 'starters', see Evidence 7 and 13 in this Chapter and Evidence 1(a) and 1(b) in Chapter 4 .
58.
For example, see Evidence 8(b) in Chapter 3 .
INTRODUCTION
successful, throughout the centuries a major motivation in favour of edu-cation in Hong Kong and a large part of the reason for its importance has been pragmatic and frankly vocational considerations. For governmental intervention in education in Hong Kong, a major constraint has been cost. Thus, the pragmatism-factor has at times contributed towards change, as when it has influenced public opinion about the language of instruction, for example, and in affecting the status of technical education. At other times, it has reinforced inertia, especially in its guise of financial strin-gency.
Paternalism
An important feature of education in Hong Kong is the prevalence of paternalistic attitudes and of responses to paternalism — via face, or pragmatically, or by means of more extreme actions. Paternalism has assumed many forms in Hong Kong. More recently, there has been a conjunction of paternalistic styles: Confucianistic Paternalism which rec-ognizes obligations to inferiors and the duties of the 'noble' or 'superior' man, Colonialist Paternalism of the 'White Man's Burden'-type, Bureau-cratic Paternalism of the 'we-know-what's-best-for-them' variety, and Evangelical Paternalism in its many zealous guises. Each of these forms has manifested itself in relation to education in Hong Kong. On occasions, several or all of them have coalesced to enable or, via patronizing atti-tudes, to disable educational change.
Language
Many of the less patronizing criticisms of the quality of learning and teaching in Hong Kong tend to share the opinion that problems of lan-guage, especially issues related to the medium of instruction, have been at the root of the imperfections59. The most obvious points relate to the use of English as medium of instruction in many prestigious schools, beginning in 1843, boosted by the establishment of the Central School in 1862, as well as by the increasing demand for interpreters and English-speaking middle-men or clerks, and officially blessed by the Education Conference of 1878. In this period and later, some of Hong Kong's students struggled educa-tionally because of the use of a second language as the medium of educa-tional communication. A significant proportion of these, however, struggled successfully. Although this — particularly the less successful struggling
— is the aspect of the 'language-problem' which receives most attention today, it is possible that it is only a symptom. More fundamental forces, associated especially with the nature and use of written and spoken Chi-nese and partly with the nature and use of English, could be at work. The social class structure of Hong Kong is likely to be related to the operation
59. Among the many examples which can be found in this book, readers may wish to examine, as a 'starter', Evidence 4 in this Chapter.
/
of these forces. Thus, the ideographic nature of written Chinese, its lack of an alphabet and of clear phonetic indicators has, for centuries, not only encouraged rote-memory as a respected form of learning'; it has also encouraged formality in educational discourse. Even the spoken Chinese of the classroom has tended to be highly elaborate and dignified, when the patois, especially of the lower classes, has included the liveliest of word-play and the most forceful of expletives. The difficulty of finding written equivalents for much spoken Cantonese has exacerbated the problem, and the general disjunction between written Chinese, which is codified Man-darin or Putonghua, and oral, colloquial Cantonese has added to the 'distance' between teacher and students. This provides a rather complex background to the intrusion of English, whether the intrusion was re-sented on political and ethno-sexual grounds, or welcomed, especially for commercial reasons.
Social Fragmentation
The relationship between the two 'communities' historically most important in Hong Kong, the Chinese and the British, has been one of symbiosis. The two communities, whatever their historical differences in number, culture, and formal political influence, have mutually benefited from their association. This association has sometimes been fraught with tension. On occasions, indeed, the attitude underlying the relationship might be best described as one of Tiealthy mutual contempt760. There have been other member communities of Hong Kong society. Most of these have, themselves, been fragmented. One consequence of this feature has been the recurring attempts to provide separate schools for different eth-nic groups and even for different social classes and the varying reactions to these attempts by Governments61.
Respect for Scholars
Traditionally the scholar has been venerated in Chinese culture. For centuries, scholastic success brought with it elevation to the mandarinate, the ranks of the scholar gentry. In this position, a scholar would exercise political, judicial, and social power, normally in a province of which he was not native. In the eyes of the common people as well as in his own eyes — particularly from the perspective of the 'higher valuations' of both
— the scholar was seen to be a man of elegance, dignity and refinement, a model worthy of emulation. Because of his elevated rank, his unfamiliar-ity with the district and people, and his considerable power, ordinary or
60.
See H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 209.
61.
See f.n. 54 and Evidence 21 in this chapter, the Chronicle for 1855 and 1859 in Chapter 3 and the Chronicle for 1870-72, 1901,1902, and 1903 in Chapter 4, as well as the various extracts used as Evidence 15,16 and 17 in Chapter 4, and Evidence 1 in Chapter 5.
\
INTRODUCTION
'inferior' persons who needed his help customarily made use of 'go-betweens', middle-men who were often lesser officials or aspiring candi-dates for civil service honours. Lower down the academic ladder, even teachers in the traditional village and lineage schools, and later in the primary and secondary schools, would be treated with respect, offered tidbits and other presents as well as fees.
Several families from the Hong Kong region can boast of scholastic successes via the traditional civil service examinations in a roll of honour going back many centuries. Although the individual scholars then spent their working lives outside the district, the families accumulated prestige, and motivation for learning was fanned. Magistrates and other officials came to the Hong Kong region from elsewhere in China. Some of these contributed to the promotion of education. There can be little doubt that the custom of using go-betweens was used in Hong Kong for educational purposes, as well as others. Veneration of, and obedience to, local teachers has had largely stultifying effects on the curriculum and on teaching styles. In post-1841 Hong Kong, however, the 'face' and privileges given to teachers was tempered with the patronizing, sometimes disdainful, attitudes of many foreigners and some visiting Chinese literati62. Ironi-cally, perhaps, neither respect nor contempt for teachers advanced the cause of professional preparation. There was no provision for teacher education per se in pre-colonial Hong Kong. And for many years in the history of colonial Hong Kong the emphasis has been not so much on in-service or on pre-service training, as on lip service to the idea63.
Multiplicity of Agencies and Arenas for Decision-making
For educational decision-making, the interests of the individual, the
62.
As a preliminary step, see Evidence 13 in this Chapter and Evidence 6(a) in Chapter 3.
63.
See Evidence 1(b) in Chapter 4, and note how the 'pragmatic' attitude of many Hong Kong parents and pupils tended to undermine Stewart's pupil-teacher scheme, which was in itself, an adaptation of the monitorial system then popular in Britain. The 'Normal School' established in 1881 by the enthusiasm of Governor Hennessy and Inspector of Schools, Eitel, survived for only two years and actually produced only two teachers! Thereafter, teacher training in Hong Kong was confined to a 'normal' class of ten students in the Central School, until the establishment in 1907 of part-time evening classes at the newly-founded Technical Institute. The Department of Education at the University of Hong Kong was established in 1916. It offered education courses to undergraduates in the Faculty of Arts. The Vernacular Normal Schools for Men and for Women were opened in 1921 and the Government Taipo Vernacular School for Teachers in the New Territories in 1925. The inadequacy of provision of teacher education in Hong Kong was, however, highlighted both in the Burney Report of 1935 and, more specifically, in the Lindsell Report of 1938.
While recognizing the deficiencies in the Hong Kong situation, one should, as a necessary corrective, also note the lack of provision for teacher education during most of this period in China, in comparable colonies such as Singapore, and even in Britain (at least for most of the nineteenth century).
family, the lineage, the village, the local and central governments have not always converged. After 1841, there were also opportunities for friction between the plans concocted by colonial administrators, the aspirations of missionaries, and the efforts at supervision by the Government in Britain. Conflicts of interests and intentions were sometimes productive of change. More often, they led to obfuscation and inertia. The fact that educational argument could take place in so many different arenas — homes, ancestral and other halls, committees, councils, and corridors — meant that they were often protracted. Typically, they involved disputes over jurisdiction.
In summary, then, education in Hong Kong has been marked by several interesting ploys. These have included a 'beat-the-system' atti-tude, and strategies which could be summarized as 'make use of go-betweens', 'be privately enterprising and publicly benevolent7. Partly be-cause so many of the inhabitants of Hong Kong have in most historical periods been recent immigrants, the work ethic has been strongly es-poused, particularly in relation to education as a key to social mobility.
28. Selected statistics.
(a) Tables
Statistical information is capable of providing interesting insights into the educational situation. In the case of Hong Kong, no reliable statistics exist for schooling in the region before 1844, and, even after 1844, the figures must be treated with caution. Much of the data tabulated below has been selected from the Hong Kong Government publication, Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong, 1841-1930,3rd edn. (Noronha & Co., Government Printers, 1932). It has been supplemented and checked by reference to Government Blue Books, Administrative Reports, and Financial Esti-mates. Even so, vagueness of definitions and changes in procedures and organization, the tendency of many Hong Kong people to hide the truth from inspectors, census-takers, et al., plus a variety of 'unknowns', suggest that inferences derived from educational statis-tics in Hong Kong should be tentative and should be tested against evidence from other sources.**
64. There is little doubt that small traditional schools escaped the attention of Government data collectors in the earliest period and, therefore, figures even for the number of schools are probably under-estimations. Attendance records are even more notoriously fallible. Several of Stewart's early reports mention the tricks that teachers resorted to for the purpose of presenting a spuriously impressive picture of attendance at their schools in the days when their own salaries depended on pupil attendance (see, for example, Chapter 4, Evidence 1(a)). Evidence 29 in this chapter and Evidence 27 in Chapter 5 illustrate more modern examples of by-passing officialdom. In Tables 1-4, the column 'Grand Total' has been included under 'Attendance', where possible, to emphasize that the aggregate of pupils attending Government schools and pupils attending Grant-in-Aid schools was never
INTRODUCTION
equivalent to the grand total number of pupils attending all schools in Hong Kong, even though it was included in the tables produced by the 1932 Historical and Statistical Abstract as Total'. Precisely the same point is true about the 'No. of schools' column. Estimates of expenditure depend, of course, on exactly what is included under the various headings. Although the 1932 Historical and Statistical Abstract, for example, refers in its tables to the proportion of public expenditure devoted to 'public instruction', it seems clear that this figure comprises only the amounts spent on the Education Department. Also see f.n. 66 below.
Table 1.1 demonstrates the difficulties of using incomplete and inaccurate (or uncer-tain) sources. As mentioned above, the basic source used to construct all of the tables and charts in this chapter is the Hong Kong Government's Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong, 1841-1930, 3rd edn. (1932). In the statistical tables offered by this publication, there are no data about the numbers of Government schools or Mission schools and no information about the pupil attendance at Government schools and Mission schools for the years 1844-50 and 1857. In order to insert this data, the present author checked the original Blue Books for these years. These include all the relevant statistics. Unfortunately, the annual Blue Books also suggest that the 'No. of schools' entries for the period included in the 1932 edition of the Abstract are inaccurate (mainly under-estimations) and that the same is true of the entries for Total attendance'. Table 1, therefore, includes the Government's 1932 version and, in parenthesis, the contemporary estimates, also produced by the Hong Kong Government for this early period. A comparison of these figures will show that the compiler of the 1932 Abstract tended to confuse Total schools' and Total attendance' with Mission schools' and 'Attendance at mission schools'.
Even with the amendments produced in Table 1.1 below, there remains the likelihood that, largely because of the tendency of the local population not to cooperate fully with fact-finding officials, the figures for number of schools and number of pupils fail to represent the whole truth. At least, however, they represent in this amended form, what official observers at the time believed to be the truth.
Date
1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860
Gvt. expnd (Total)
53,108 72,841 60,351 50,960 62,309 38,986 34,314 34,115 34,766 36,419 34,635 40,814 42,426 65,498 62,979 66,109 72,391
% expnd
p. instrn
2.40 1.13 1.26 1.32 1.32 2.04 1.97 2.68 2.70 1.83 3.17 2.15 2.36 1.93 2.69 3.07 2.53
No. schls
5(12) 4(15) 4(18) 4(13) 6(17) 9(10) 12 11 12 10 11 11 14 (20) 18 23 35
Table 1.1
No. No. Gvt schls Mssn schls
(0) (5) (0) (4) (0) (4) (0) (4) (3) (6) (3) (6) 4 8 6 5 6 6 6 4 6 5 8 3 9 5 (14) (6) 16 2 20 3 21 14 Attendance
Gvt schls
(0) (0) (0) (0) (95) (76) 70 143 158 155 134 185 237 (526) 608 977 1001 Mssn schls
(119) (100) (102) (118) (146) (130) 157 154 158 92 113 139 126 (209) 54 109 326
Total Atendance
117(208) 100(250) 102(283+) 118(283) 146(263) 223(218) 227 297 316 247 247 324 363 (735) 662 1086 1327
tfl
a
c
§x
1
o
I
3 8
Table 1.2
Date Gvt. expnd % expnd No. No. Total No. Attendance Total
(Total) p. instrn Gvt.schls Mssn schls schls Gvt schls Mssn schls Attendance
1861 536,234 1.56 20 20 40 796 523 1,319
1862 631,260 1.76 20 19 39 889 443 1,332
1863 586,566 1.84 16 22 38 577 653 1,230
1864 763,308 1.53 12 22 34 392 759 1,151
1865 937,805 1.37 12 16 28 546 782 1,328
1866 936,955 1.28 11 12 23 623 616 1,239
1867 730,917 1.68 11 15 26 700 735 1,435
1868 991,311 1,46 14 17 31 916 827 1,743
1869. 912,853 1.83 17 14 31 942 743 1,685
1870 877,224 2.16 22 13 35 1,302 701 2,003
1871 894,209 2.15 26 13 39 1,292 755 2,047
1872 835,698 2.45 30 12 42 1,480 619 2,099
1873 789,874 2.78 30 21 51 1,838 808 2,646
1874 921,480 2.56 30 17 47 1,931 1,067 2,998
1875 869,823 3.04 30 22 52 1,927 1,136 3,063
Table 1.3
Date
1876 1877 1878 1879
1881 1882 1883 1884
1886 1887 1888 1889
1891 1892 1893 1894
1896 1897 1898 1899
Gvt. expnd (Total)
869,624 902,500 873,208 910,523 926,868 948,014 981,582 1,094,805 1,342,299 1,595,398 1,621,250 2,020,862 2,023,002 1,992,330 1,833,719 1,915,350 2,449,086 2,342,837 1,920,524 2,299,096 2,972,373 2,474,910 2,641,410 2,841,805 3,162,792 3,628,447 % expnd
p. instrn
3.04 2.85 2.84 3.41 3.72 3.84 3.95 4.07 3.93 3.09 3.07 2.42 2.46 2.77 3.28 3.91 3.23 3.85 4.17 3.53 2.08 3.16 2.83 2.61 2.43 2.25
No. No. Gvt.schls GinA schls
30 9 30 11 30 15 30 17 31 19 36 27 35 37 39 41 39 48 35 55 35 55 34 56 33 61 34 63 35 69 36 76 36 81 36 95 24 102 20 99 16 106 16 101 16 96 16 97 13 96 13 82
Total No. schls
39 41 45 47 50 63 72 80 87(190) 90(190) 90(190) 90(201) 94(204) 97(206) 104(211) 112(223) 117(215) 131(229) 126(277) 119(232) 122(236) 117(215) 112(224) 113(221) 108(208) 95(236)
Attendance
Gvt schls
1,118 1,192 1,241 1,130 1,130 1,212 1,210 1,235 1,229 1,224 1,206 1,321 1,333 1,425 1,565 1,732 1,626 1,793 1,576 1,248 1,422 1,181 1,659 1,453 1,622 1,750
GinA schls
460 517 625 700 939 1,098 1,598 1,974 2,162 2,471 2,535 2,889 2,871 2,834 3,218 3,514 3,529 3,968 4,234 3,211 3,737 3,134 3,732 3,581 3,211 3,870
Total Attendance
1,578 1,709 1,866 1,830 2,069 2,310 2,808 3,209 3,391 3,695 3,741 4,210 4,204 4,259 4,783 5,246 5,155 5,761 5,810 4,459 5,159 4,315 5,391 5,034 4,833 5,620
Grand Total
7,758 7,885 7,633 8,062 8,272 8,717 9,681 9,644 10,119 10,940 12,123 10,750 10,721 9,686 11,177 11,171 11,299 11,365
8 c
￡
§d
X
I
i
s
§
s
I
S
.—.
4* t—i
3
^
‧￡.‧
Table 1.3 (Continued)
Date Gvt. expnd % expnd No. No. Total No. Attendance Total Grand
(Total) p. instrn Gvt.schls GinA schls schls Gvt schls GinA schls Attendance Total
1901 4,111,722 2.16 14 78 92 1,557 3,197 4,754
1902 5,909,549 1.59 13 67 80 1,664 3,107 4,771
1903 5,396,669 2.46 13 90 103 1,618 3,342 4,960
1904 6,376,235 2.43 12 69 81 1,665 3,305 4,970
1905 6,951,275 2.33 12 70 82 1,797 x 3,556 5,353
1906 6,832,611 2.39 14 67 81 1,932 3,564 5,496
1907 5,757,203 3.20 14 65 79 2,144 3,780 5,924
1908 7,929,478 2.59 14 59 73 2,251 3,927 6,178
1909 6,542,839 3.35 12 58 70 2,326 4,234 6,560
1910 6,907,113 3.27 14 55 69 1,960 4,337 6,297
1911 7,077,177 3.36 14 53 67 2,120 4,183 6,303
1912 7,202,543 3.38 14 61 75(377) 2,024 4,309 6,333
1913 8,658,013 3.19 14 50 64(584) 1,855 4,514 6,369
Table 1.4
Date
1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940
Gvt. expnd (Total)
10,756,225 15,149,268 11,079,915 14,090,828 16,252,172 17,915,925 14,489,594 15,739,652 18,563,003 21,571,904 26,726,428 28,266,818 23,524,716 20,845,065 21,230,242 21,983,257 28,119,646 31,160,774 32,050,284 31,149,156 31,122,715 28,291,636 29,513,521 32,111,222 37,175,898 37,949,116 64,787,556
% expnd
p. instrn
2.72 2.17 2.90 2.35 2.11 2.00 3.72 3.75 3.92 3.97 3.55 3.61 3.86 5.24 5.19 5.24 5.91 5.48 5.45 5.72 6.00 6.02 6.31 6.34 5.75 5.66 4.21
No. No. Gvt.schls GinA schls
17 49 14 45 14 49 14 34 14 33 14 64 14 64 16 64 16 271 16 287 18 288 18 324 19 314 19 319 19 334 19 327 19 304 19 16 19 16 19 16 19 17 19 18 20 19 20 18 20 18 21 19
Total No. schls
66 59 63 48 47 78 78 80 287 303 306 342 333 338 353 346 323 35 35 35 36 37 39 38 38 40
Attenc Jance Total
Gvt schls GinA schls Attendance
1,673 4,533 6,206
2,409 3,614 6,023
2,433 3,500 5,933
2,757 3,447 6,204
2,813 3,314 6,127
2,882 5,016 7,898
2,929 5,438 8,367
2,844 5,841 8,685
3,169 13,005 16,174
3,480 14,778 18,258
3,458 16,005 19,463
2,901 14,869 17,770
3,188 16,690 19,878
3,402 18,397 21,799
3,636 20,601 24,237
3,893 21,440 25,333
4,115 21,374 25,489
4,559 5,980 10,539
4,602 6,753 11,355
4,517 7,169 11,686
4,683 7,127 11,810
4,519 7,360 11,879
4,665 7,670 12,335
4,772 8,299 13,071
5,167 9,109* 14,576
5,251 9,809 15,060
Grand Total
19,381 19,856 21,103 23,935 25,544 25,786 28,707 35,282 39,214 42,452 46,933 39,075 37,354 49,111 56,301 58,245 62,997 68,593 71,223 72,917 73,348 75,480 78,679 86,993 104,134 118,193
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INTRODUCTION
79
(b) Charts
Simple pie-charts have the virtue of indicating proportions or 'the slices of the pie' quite dramatically. However, when used about a period of time (as they are used here), they do not provide information about the changing size of the pie. Such information is available in the tables above. As in the case of the tables, similar caution needs to be exercised when interpreting the charts.65
Government Expenditure, 1844
58.17% t^E^^E^^^.t 24.38% 1.64% 2.48% E3 General Admin O Public Health E3 Public Instruction ￡z] Public Order H Public works
/ 21.41%
Chart One
65. The basic problem again derives from definitions, in particular, the precise accounting definition of 'Public Instruction'.
Government Expenditure, 1866
1.47%
18.21%
truo
>ctzz
/￡-—
:::::w .' \ -1 ->: [nl Non-effctve chgs ^3 General Admin
/>sl-32.72% L ~^ [U Public Health
‧*>*''\^\'
-
Eg| PubUc Instruction
Er^zrOr^rErzrz. ;jr i j'/>
^^ k g PubUc Order
Lovy-:^
25.51% l^E^^E^HB g | Public works
WE
H Defence
26.82%
Chart Two
Government Expenditure, 1882
3.54%
9.99%
fH Non-effctve chgs 19.45% 27.96% m General Admin u Public Health Public Instruction
R
PubUc Order
H
Public works
Defence
B
29.71%
Chart Three
INTRODUCTION
Government Expenditure, 1894
16.57%
11.81% E^H^E.
17.87%
14.88%
38.48%
fgj Non-effctve chgs 0 General Admin O Public Health [￡3 Public Instruction g Public Order HI Public works P Defence
7.41%
Chart Four
16.16% Government Expenditure, 1902 6.47%
38.22% 27.64% fg] Non-effctve chgs [3 General Admin O PubUc Health E3 PubUc Instruction g PubUc Order § PubUc works H Defence
11.26%
Chart Five
Government Expenditure, 1922
6.63% 7.65%
TS O
4T T "h\o 01 Non-effctve chgs
7.48% A^tt-t r"K° ° E￡*# 17.80%
IV )n
I I no H General Admin \ 00
LZ O PubUc Health gvj Public Instruction g PubUc Order
I_!_J :UJ-U,
p^ Public works
5.35%
H Defence Q GvtUndertkgs
3.92%
29.40%
12.49%
Chart Six
Government Expenditure, 1930
4.66%
12.29%
14.87%
fH Non-effctve chgs
O General Admin
(0 Public Health
gj] Public Instruction
28.16%
S PubUc Order II Public works
22.93% t^r^r^rzr
￡3 Defence 0 GvtUndertkgs
7.31& 12.67%
5.91%
Chart Seven
INTRODUCTION
29. From family records.
Education in Hong Kong, as elsewhere, concerns not only public policy, but also every family. Every family, therefore, possesses interesting historical source material. The ex-amples below are included, not so much for their intrinsic importance as for their represen-tativeness.
The first photograph (Illus. 1.5) is one of an unregistered school in the 1920s. The Headmaster was a graduate the University of California (Berkeley), who also gained Masters' degrees at New York University and Columbia University. He had been sent to America by the Imperial Government of the Qing Dynasty in 1910. He returned to China in 1919 and came to Hong Kong in the mid-'twenties as a personal response to the rioting in Canton and the generally chaotic conditions in southern China typical of the 'Warlord Period'. Once in Hong Kong, he made his living by running a school on Hill Road. As will be seen, the school enrolment was not large. The Education Ordinance required all schoob with an enrolment of more than ten pupils to be registered with the Education Department. Unregistered schools would not, of course, have been counted in the educational statistics of the time.
The second photograph (lllus. 1.6) displays one of the Chinese qualifications of the Headteacher of this unregistered school. It tells of a mark of over 90% in a Chinese History examination during a teacher education programme at Peking University.
Illus. 1.5 The Headmaster and his pupils of an unregistered school in the 1920s.
Illus 1.6 The Chinese qualifications of the Headteacher of the unregistered school.
30. A jaundiced view of schooling in Hong Kong.
Caricatures and cartoons tend to exaggerate, of course, but they may also help to sharpen focus. Below is an attempt to summarize graphically some of the problems facing pupils and teachers during much of Hong Kong's colonial period. To acquaint readers with the cartoon-style, this first sample (lllus. 1.7) receives a little further exposition, even at the risk of redundancy. The 'bubbles' represent aspirations. In the case of the pupils, these appear to focus on financial gain and socio-economic elevation; in the case of the teacher, a concern to spread the Christian religion is combined with a need for money. There seem to be communication difficulties. Equipment is basic, or conspicuous by its absence. The teacher's social status is, to say the least, dubious. There is not a pervading sense of enjoyment by either the teacher or the pupils. The teacher's style may be textbook-oriented; the pupils' learning strategies basically receptive and passive.
INTRODUCTION
Illus. 1.7 Aspirations of teacher and pupils.
Chapter Two
EDUCATION IN PRE-COlONIAl HONG KONG 7-1841/1860/1898
COMMENTARY
The actual beginnings of educational activities in the region now known as Hong Kong are very difficult to trace. Even though the Xin'an1 district of Guangdung province was not particularly prosperous and did not figure prominently in Chinese Imperial archives, one can be sure that some educational provision was made from very early times, even from pre-Chinese times. Certainly from the Han Dynasty onwards, this educational provision varied from the traditional village schools (established to teach reading and writing to village children through classical texts) to more vocationally oriented temple or monastery schools, and in parts of the district, to study halls and colleges designed to prepare students for the Civil Service Examinations.
There were, of course, differences between the three main parts of what was to become the colony of Hong Kong: the areas later known as Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and the New Territories. Not the least of these differences derives from the fact that the areas were first occupied by the British at different times — Hong Kong Island in 1841, the Kowloon peninsula in 1860 and the New Territories in 1898 — therefore, Chinese educational developments continued for different du-rations.
Small village schools with single teachers who usually returned to the main-land during the fishing season, existed on Hong Kong Island before 1841. Accord-ing to Eitel, who had access to sources no longer available, there were village schools in Chek Chu (later called Stanley), Shek Pai Wan (later known as Aber-deen), Heung Kong Tsai and Wong Nai Chong. There may well also have been such schools in Shau Kei Wan and Kung Ngam. An English visitor to Hong Kong Island a few weeks after the first official landing there by the British remarked on the similarity of a village school to the village schools in his homeland.2 The Chinese Repository reports the existence of 'a few native schools, perhaps eight or ten, in various parts of the island, chiefly in Victoria' in August 1843.3 One can
1.
Xin'an (or 'Hsin-an') has a quite complex administrative history. See Evidence 2(b) in this chapter for the various names by which the region was known earlier than the Qing Dynasty.
2.
See Evidence 1(a) in Chapter 3.
3.
The Chinese Repository contained frequent reference to education, both pre-existing Chi-nese and the attempts of missionaries to start schools in the region. This particular mention
assume that not all of these were founded immediately after and as a result of the British arrival. In addition, schools affiliated to temples are likely to have been located in various parts of the island as well as in Kowloon and what later became known as the New Territories.4 There were certainly several larger schools, col-leges, study halls and other tutorial establishments in Kowloon and in the sur-rounding rural areas. The Li-ying College and the Chou-Wang-Erh-Kung College at Kam Tin had quite venerable histories, though by the nineteenth century only ruins of the former survived. But numerous study halls as well as institutions like the Lung-chin Free School at Kowloon City were supported enthusiastically by the wealthier local residents.5 Modern research, especially when related to the obser-vations of Charles Gutzlaff, James Legge, Wilhelm Lobscheid and other earlier or contemporary commentators, offers interesting answers to questions about the curriculum, teaching and learning methods, purposes and conditions of these traditional schools;6 and these answers do not consistently support the more dismissive or patronizing comments of some missionaries and colonial officials.
of Chinese schools on the island of Hong Kong appears in Article III, 'Religious and Charitable Institutions in Hongkong: Churches, Chapels, Schools, Colleges, Hospitals, etc/ of the August 1843 issue, p. 440.
4.
According to Eitel, for example, The Chinese, who had already four temples from 75 to 100 years old, viz. one at Aplichow (dating from 1770 A.D.), one at Stanley, one in Spring Gardens (Taiwongkung), and one at Tunglowan (Causeway Bay), commenced building their City Temple (Sheng-wong-ming)... [in 1843]' (E.J. Eitel, Europe in China, p. 190). Other sources suggest that the original building belonging to the Tin Hau Temple at Joss House Bay in what was later the New Territories was constructed in 1266, that the Pak Tai Temple on the island of Cheung Chau was built in about 1783, that Castle Peak Monastery can trace back its ancestor-buildings about 1,500 years, and that the Tin Hau Temple at Stanley is now at least two hundred years old. It is also generally accepted that most temples and monasteries had schools and libraries affiliated to them. For an introduction to the temples and monasteries of the Hong Kong region, see Joyce Savidge, This is Hong Kong: Temples (Hong Kong: Government Information Services, 1977).
5.
Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Its External Communications before 1842 (Hong Kong: Insti-tute of Chinese Culture, 1963), pp. 133 ff.
6.
See, for example, Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Its External Communications before 1842 (Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Culture, 1963), esp. pp. 133 ff.; Sung Hok-Pang, Legends and Stories of the New Territories: Kam Tin', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 13 (1973), 130-32, and 14 (1974), 160-85; Ng Yuk-lin, 'Hong Kong before 1842: The 1819 Edition of the Hsin-an Hsien-chih: Hong Kong, Kowloon and the New Territories, 1644-1842' (unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Hong Kong, 1961); and Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County: A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1983), esp. pp. 56-61; Alice Ng, Traditional Education in Rural Hong Kong' and Bernard Luk, Traditional Education in Urban Hong Kong', presented in the Conference on Hong Kong History and Society in Change, 1981; Alice Ng Lun Ngai-ha, 'Village Education in the New Territories Region under the Ch'ing' and Bernard H.K. Luk, T,u Tzu-Chiin and Ch'en Jung-Kun: Two Exemplary Figures in the 'Ssu-shu' Education of Pre-War Urban Hong Kong', in David Faure, James Hayes and Alan Birch (eds.), From
There is a temptation to treat the whole of pre-colonial education in the Hong Kong region as one simple, unchanging 'situation', unworthy of serious study or respect. Some commentators have not only succumbed to this temptation but have advanced a contemptuous myth not dissimilar to the 'Dark Continent canard about pre-colonial Africa. The educational situation in the Hong Kong region before the arrival of foreigners was elementary and unvarying, they claim. Then foreigners arrived to impose their will for the purpose of bringing enlightenment. As Ernest Eitel exclaimed about a related matter,7 o sancta simplicitas!
Part of the attractiveness of both the temptation and the myth comes from a need to assert racial superiority. Part comes from an attempt to disguise ignorance. In fact, there was a college near the village of Kam Tin, for example, about four hundred years before Eton College was founded in England and six hundred years before any school worthy of the name was established in North America. This college was the Lik Ying Tsai (or Li-ying College) and it was famous for its library, containing many thousands of volumes and for the academic, literary, and administrative successes of a number of its ex-students. Its founder, Tang Foo (Tang Fu Hsieh) was possibly the first of the Tang family to settle in the area. During his retirement from government work, he occasionally lectured in the college himself, but he also paid for full-time teachers to be employed there and was probably responsible for training some of them. He built several hostels for the students to live in and used the income from his ownership and cultivation of the neighbouring fields to set up scholarships for poor students.
Thanks to the work of such modern scholars as those listed in f .n. 6, and pre-eminently to the work of Sung Hok-P'ang and Lo Hsiang-Lin, much more is known about education in pre-colonial Hong Kong than was known in the earliest
Village to City: Studies in the Traditional Roots of Hong Kong Society (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1984); Government Information Services, Rural Architecture in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Government Information Services, 1981), esp. pp. 73-101; David Faure, The Structure of Chinese Rural Society: Lineage and Village in the Eastern New Territories (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1986); James Hayes, The Rural Com-munities ofHong Kong: Studies and Themes (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1983); Sally Borthwick, Education and Social Change in China: The Beginnings of the Modern Era (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1983), esp. pp. 14-37; and W. Lobscheid, A Few Notices on the Extent of Chinese Education and the Government Schools of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, 1859), pp. 12 ff. Also see the Evidence section of this chapter.
7. The related matter was the view held by Hong Kong's second Governor, Sir John Davis, that 'if these Schools [those which he suggested should receive Government aid] were eventually placed in charge of native Christian teachers, bred up by the Protestant Mission-aries, it would afford the most rational prospect of converting the native population of the Island'. Eitel adds the Latin tag, meaning 'Oh Blessed Simplicity!', to comment on his quotation of this extract from a despatch written by Sir John Davis to the Colonial Office on 13 March 1847, in Chapter XIV of his Europe in China (first published by Kelly and Walsh in 1895, more recently reprinted with the addition of an Introduction by H.J. Lethbridge, by Oxford University Press, Hong Kong, 1983), p. 247. The full despatch from Davis is in CO 129/19, pp. 239 ff., and also appears as Evidence 5(a) of Chapter 3.
colonial years. One may even gain a fascinating glimpse into the Tiidden curricu-lum' and the folklore of student-life in the story Sung Hok-P'ang tells of 'standing on the turtle-head rock',8 a game not dissimilar to T'm King of the Castle'! More literal glimpses of early educational architecture are still available to the visitor in parts of the New Territories. Credit should be given to the work of Patrick Lau, James Hayes, Victor Kwok and Dominic Lam in making more permanent such insights.9
Even though it is true that there was little change to the formal curriculum in traditional Chinese schools and colleges from the Han Dynasty onwards (until the later nineteenth century and early twentieth century), this does not provide suffi-cient grounds for an assertion that education in pre-colonial Hong Kong was stagnant or even moribund. In such a long period, there were bound to be times of hiatus in development. There were also times of increased activity. Thus, the creative energies of Tang Foo (Tang Fu Hsieh) are in some ways typical of the revival of education in China generally during the Sung Dynasty.10 But, certainly by the early nineteenth century, only the ruins of his famous college were to be
t seen. Obviously, the coastal evacuation of Xin'an ordered by the Qing Imperial Government in 1662 and 1664 as a 'scorched earth'-type defensive strategy against Ming loyalists had disastrous effects on schooling in the area, but after the evacu-ation order was lifted in 1669, educational as well as other developments were re-newed.11 On the whole, these development followed the general trend in China towards the formalization of education:
The growth of shu-yium [academies] in late imperial times also re-flected the steadily increasing prominence of the examination system. With the government's growing reliance on examinations as the chief means of recruiting bureaucrats, and with the construction of examination sheds in virtually every capital throughout the empire, higher education inevitably focused more sharply on preparation for the imperial
8.
See Sung Hok-Pang, Legends and Stories of the New Territories: Kam Tin', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 13 (1973), 118. Much of the foregoing descrip-tion of the Lik Ying Tsai is taken from this article and its sequel by Sung, extracts from which appears as Evidence 6 in this chapter. For relevant extracts from and comments on the 1819 Gazetteer of the Xin'an County, see Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1983), pp. 59-60, and for further details of the Li-ying College and other schools, see Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Its External Communications before 1842 (Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Culture, 1963), pp. 136-45.
9.
See Rural Architecture in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Government Information Services, 1981), esp. pp. 72-99. See also Evidence 5 in this chapter below.
10.
For example, see Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954), p. 137, and Thomas H.C. Lee, Government Education and Examinations in Sung China (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1985), pp. 20 ff.
11.
See Sung Hok Pang, Ts'in Fuk', Hong Kong Naturalist 9 (1938), 37-42; and Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1983), pp. 26-27.
examinations. Shu-yuan, originally places of free discussion among literati and local officials, and in some respects centres of learning for learning's sake despite their de facto role in training school teachers, began to place increasing emphasis on training students to pass examinations.12 Classical education, formerly an end in itself in terms of social standing, now became a means toward the ultimate status symbol — the graduate de-grees of chii-jen [juren] and chinshih [jinshi] attainable only through the imperial examinations.13
As Peter Ng notes, Chapter 15 of the 1819 Gazetteer demonstrates the results of Xin'an's educational efforts in terms of these 'ultimate status symbols'. In the period from 1573 to 1819, sixty-two men became juren and ten of those went on to pass the jinshi degree.14
Developments continued after 1819 in all of the three main areas of what was to become Hong Kong, i.e. the island, the peninsula of Kowloon and the New Territories. In the case of the latter two areas, the developments included the founding of schools, such as the Lung-chin Free School in Kowloon City after the British occupation of Hong Kong Island. The reports of missionaries provide some impression of educational endeavours in districts which were not yet part of the colony of Hong Kong, even though at times, their own special motivation encour-ages them to be less than objective as observers.15 Other very valuable information may be garnered from the work of modern anthropologists, sociologists, and local historians, especially those who incorporate an oral history approach.16
12.
As many modern students, teachers, and observers of education in Hong Kong will be quick to attest, this emphasis has not been invariably or effectively replaced since that time.
13.
T. Grimm, 'Academies and Urban Systems in Kwangtung', in G.W. Skinner (ed.), The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 477-78.
14.
See Peter Y.L. Ng, op. cit., p. 61. He also points out that 'humble Hua Xian in the same period produced just four jinshi, but Xiangshan achieved fourteen, neighbouring Dongguan seventy and Shunde well over a hundred'. More details about the individual degree-holders from Xin'an County may be found in Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Its External Communications before 1842 (Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Culture, 1963), pp. 137-45 and Sung Hok-P'ang, legends and Stories of the New Territories: Kam Tin', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 14 (1974), 170-77.
15.
See, for example, Chinese Repository 1 (December 1832), 305; 2 (October 1833), 249-51; 4 (1836), 1, 7 and 167; 6 (1837-38), 229; 14 (September 1840), 286; and the Rev. R. Krone, 'A Notice of the Sanon District', reprinted from Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society 6, 71-106, a lecture read before the Society on 24 February 1858, in the Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (1967), 104-37. See also Evidence 7 and 8 in this chapter below.
16.
A pioneer of this work is Hugh D. Baker. See especially his 1968 book, A Chinese Lineage Village: Sheung Shui (London: Frank Cass, 1968), and also The Five Great Clans', based on a lecture delivered on 1 March 1965, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 6 (1966), 25-47. Other important works containing evidence and comments on this field
Even so, there are still large gaps in our knowledge of education in pre-colonial Hong Kong. Therefore many questions suggest themselves. Outside the serendipitous discovery of old documents or archaeological sites, most of these questions can now only be tackled at all by means of the oral history approach especially to family-history in the New Territories and this will have to be accom-plished quickly, before the ever-increasing pace of urbanization overtakes memo-ries of village traditions and customs. Many details are at present missing, with sources such as genealogies presenting problems of conversion to the modern dating-system,17 and the large general questions remain.
*
In what ways did the development of education in pre-colonial Hong Kong reflect the trends analyzed for China as a whole? In what ways did develop-ments in the Hong Kong region differ from the general national trends?
*
What were the principal learning and teaching strategies in the schools of the region? How did these differ in the various levels of schooling (e.g., between the elementary ssu-shu (private school) or chia-shu (family school) or i-hsueh (charitable school) and the more academic and collegiate shu-yiian)?
*
How did the various components of the 'hidden curriculum' reveal them-selves in Hong Kong schools? What changes, if any, took place in the formal curriculum and why was there change (or no change)?
*
Was any use made of early forms of educational technology (e.g., the abacus, early maps, paintings, puppets, other forms of symbolic representation)? How leacher-centred and examination-oriented was schooling in the region? In-variably?
include James Hayes, The Hong Kong Region, 1850-1911 (Hamden: Archon Books, 1977), and The Rural Communities of Hong Kong: Studies and Themes (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1983); David Faure, The Structure of Chinese Rural Society: Lineage and Village in the Eastern New Territories (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1986); David Faure, James Hayes and Alan Birch (eds.), From Village to City: Studies in the Traditional Roots of Hong Kong Society (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1984); Ng Lun Ngai-ha, 'Village Education in Transition: The Case of Sheung Shui', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 22, (1982), 252-70. The last-named provides evidence about the number of first degree (sheng-yuari) holders who were members of the Liao lineage, Hakkas who had settled in Sheung Shui. She records these by generation, while admitting that the data are not completely reliable, especially for the generations before the 14th (mid-18th Century), but also provides an approximate indication per century as follows: 17th Century —16; 18th Century — 25; 19th Century —19.
17. As Peter Ng remarks, The layman receives little enlightenment from "the first year of the Kangxi reign", and even the specialist will have to go to his reference tables to discover which year of the Western calendar that was. Yet it is not strictly accurate to translate that date as "A.D. 1662", because while it began in 1662 it did not end until 7 February 1663/ (New Peace County (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1983), p. 5.)
*
What was the social class background of pupils and teachers in pre-colonial Hong Kong? How widespread was literacy?
*
Who provided opportunities for informal education in pre-colonial Hong Kong (e.g., via opera troupes, puppet-shows, the exhortations of officials, games, the paintings of historical and religious themes, poems and carvings on the walls of private houses and pubic buildings and other literate or non-literate activities)?
*
In what ways, if any, were schools in Kowloon and the New Territories in the post-1841 but pre-colonial period affected by (a) the presence of foreigners on Hong Kong island, and (b) the Self-strengthening Movement in China?
CHRONICLE
c.1075: Li-ying College was founded at Kam Tin by Tang Fu Hsieh, a native of Kiangsu province. Its fame was increased by its large library of Chinese classics.
1259: According to official documents, the earliest degree-holder from the re-gion later known as Hong Kong was Huang Shih, who earned the degree of chin-shih in this year.
15th, 16th and early 17th Centuries: Several local scholars gained the awards of the chu-jen degree.18
1685: Tang Wen Wei, from Kam Tin, a descendant of Tang Fu Hsieh, attained the degree of chin-shih and was appointed to a district magistracy in Chekiang.
1754: Chiang Shih Yuan of Tai Po won the degree of chin-shih and became well-known in southern China for his literary accomplishments.
1789: Tang Ying Yuen (Tang Kuen Hin), a well-known local calligrapher, passed his military examination (the chu-jen). He later built the So Lay Yuen Study Hall at Shui Tau Tsuen in Kam Tin.
18. See Sung Hok-Pang, legends and Stories of the New Territories: Kam Tin', Journal of
the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 14 (1974), 171-77, and Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Its External Communications before 1842 (Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Culture,
1963), pp. 137-45, for further details about local scholars who gained honours through the Civil Service examinations. See also Evidences 3,6 and 8 below.
1840: The Sin Sui Study Hall in San Uk Tsuen, Fanling, was constructed. It now possesses some of the finest wood carvings in the New Territories.
1847: The building of the Kowloon City Free School (the Lung Chun Yi Hok or 'Dragon Ford Charitable School') was completed. A memorial tablet was composed to commemorate its construction by the district magistrate of Xin'an, Wang Ming-Ting. The tablet is dated the autumn of 1847.
1864: Tang Yung Keng, from the Tung Kwun district, passed his Kui Yan degree. He later (1871) became Tlon Lam Yuen Shue Kat Sz', held the office of Provincial Judge of Kiangsu province and during the Boxer troubles (1900) was appointed Superintendent of Volunteers in Guang-dong.
c.1870: A type of honours board was erected in the Yau Sin Study Hall at San Wai, a Tang family village near Lau Fau Shan. The actual building of the Study Hall, itself, may well be considerably older.
Late 19th century: Several study halls were built in what was to become the New Territories and rented free to the teachers who charged their pupils fees. The Keng-Yung Shue-Uk at Sha Tau Kok is particularly notable as having grown out of a small ssu-shu (which itself had been rebuilt in the eighteenth century). It was expanded into a two-storey building which contained six separate classrooms as well as boarding facilities and ac-commodated over a hundred students. As Alice Ng points out, it became well-known for more advanced studies and attracted students from as far away as Taipo, Shatin and Tsuen Wan.19
EVIDENCE
1. The basis' of traditional Chinese education.
If a person were to opt for one piece of evidence about the beginning of formal Chinese education, then it must be the opening pages of The Tri-metrical (or Three Character) Classic. Historically, these characters represented the beginning of educational endeavour for countless millions of Chinese. Nineteenth century missionaries tended to scoff at the content, declaring it totally unsuitable for young children and emphasizing that, at first, Chinese children learned by rote to recognize the shape of the characters and to mouth the sounds that they were meant to make, without understanding the meaning. But, as F.T.
19. See Alice Ng Lun Ngai-ha, 'Village Education in the New Territories Region under the Ch'ing', in David Faure, James Hayes, and Alan Birch (eds.), From Village to City: Studies in the Traditional Roots of Hong Kong Society (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1984), pp. 109-10.
95
Cheng suggests, the thought that 'man is by nature virtuous' may not be educationally inferior to such pieces of information as 'the cat sat on the mat' or 'Tom eats two eggs a day; you see how fat he is'20-
The extracts included below (Illus. 2.1) are (a) thefirstpage of 'The Three Character Classic, (b) a later page from the same book, (c) a page from The Thousand Character Classic, and (d) a page from The Beginning Learner's Textbook. They may be trans-lated as:
(a) From The Three Character Classic:
Men at their birth are naturally good. Their natures are the same; their habits become widely different. If foolishly there is no teaching, their nature will deteriorate. The right way in teaching is to attach the utmost importance to thoroughness ...
(b) ... If the child does not learn, this is not as it should be. If he does not learn while young, what will he be when he is old? If jade is not polished, it cannot become a thing of use. If a man does not learn, he cannot know his duty towards his neighbour. He who is the son of a man, when he is young should attach himself to his teachers and friends and practise ceremonial usages.
(c) From The Thousand Character Classic:
. . . Earth and sky are yellowish, the universe is bare. The sun and moon have their eclipses. Stars shine. Winters come as summers go. Autumn is the season for harvesting while winter is for hibernating. The accumulation of extra days from Leap Years makes up for an extra year. Music harmonizes the human world.
(d) From The Beginning Learner's Textbook
. . . The Emperor values bold heroes and would have you learn writing. Other occupations are lowly in rank; study alone is high.
2. Official views of education in Xin'an County.
Gazetteers were, in Peter Ng's words, 'collections of facts and fantasies relevant to a particular area', compiled by officials and read by the relatively small number of literati in the area covered, as well as by incoming appointees to local government posts. This 1819 edition of the Gazetteer for the county, which included the region later to be known as Hong Kong, offers evidence about educational and other conditions before the arrival of the British.'
20. See F.T. Cheng, East and West: Episodes in a Sixty Years' Journey (London: Hutchinson,
1951), p. 42. See also Evidence 20 in Chapter 1 above.
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Illus. 2.1b Another page from The Three Character Classic.
i%!^Ws￡^
m
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4k ‧f
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A
f% *
Illus. 2.1c A page from The Thousand Character Classic. Illus. 2.1d A page from The Beginning Learner's Textbook.
(a) From the Commemorative Stone for the building of the Fenggang Academy, included in the 1819 Gazetteer of Xin'an County; in Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County: A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univeristy Press, 1983), pp. 124-25.
The Fenggang academy was located in Nantou (or Xin'an city) just outside what became the New Territories of the colony of Hong Kong, but this source has been quoted to throw light on pre-colonial educational developments in the whole region. It might be noted that it was proximity to Nantou which at least partly accounted for the popularity of the Keng-Yung Shue-Uk at Sha Tau Kok. The passage may help to dispel the myth that education in pre-colonial Hong Kong was merely an unchanging 'situation' confined to a very elementary leuel.
.. . The county lies right on the coast and its inhabitants are farmers and fishermen, but they are not unmindful of study. Thus the old gazet-teer [1688] records the existence of the Bao'an academy (now long since derelict) and in the south-west corner of the city [Xinan] there was the Wengang Academy, of which only the foundations survive, the rest hav-ing fallen down with age. In 1802 the former County Magistrate Wang took advantage of the abandonment of the Dongguan Salt Offices in the city, subscribed a major sum, encouraged all the local gentry to come in with smaller amounts, and so was able to purchase the site for the Fenggang Academy. Work was begun in February/March 1806.1 happened to come to office at that time, and wanting to promote culture and men of worth I looked for ways to provide scholarship money. I found that local people such as Lui Zhuanghua had in the past given endowments of land specifi-cally for academic purposes, but fluctuations in the rental income had made disbursements unreliable. Now I have cleared up the accounts and after payment of essential charges all other moneys are to go to the academy for its use. Accordingly I have drawn up the regulations control-ling income and expenditure and they are to be permanently displayed here.
(b) Table of Xin'an County's administrative history, translated from the 1819 Gazetteer, in Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County: A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univeristy Press, 1983), pp. 79-80 (Illus. 2.2).
This extract from the 1819 Gazetteer illustrates concisely the changes in name and administration affecting the 'Hong Kong region' since earliest times.
EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL HONG KONG Table of the county's administrative history
Period Administration Translator's notes
In the days of Nan Jiao Mythical rulers. According
Yao and Shun to Qu Dajun, Guangdong
xinyuy p.30, Nan Jiao was
the same as Yue # , the
ancient name for south
China.
Three Dynasties Southern Yangzhou The three dynasties were
Xia (19894559 BC?)
Shang (15584051 BC?)
and Zhou (1050-222 BC)
Qin Panyu District of 221-207 BC
Nanhai Department
Han Boluo County 206 BC - AD 219
Three Kingdoms Boluo County AD 220-264
Jin Bao'an District of AD 265-419
Dongguan Department
Song Bao'an County of AD 420-478
Dongguan Department
Qi Bao'an County of AD 479-501
Dongguan Department
Liang Bao'an County. In the AD 502-556
period 502-519 the name
Dongguan ^IET was changed
to Dongguan ~&% but
Bao'an was unaffected
Chen Bao'an County of AD 557-588
Dongguan Department
Sui Bao'an County of AD 589-617
Guangzhou. In 589
Dongguan was abolished
and the county was given to
Guangzhou. Then in 607
Guangzhou Prefecture was
abolished and the county
came under Nanhai
Department
Illus. 2.2 Table of Xin'an County's administrative history.
Table of the county's administrative history
p.66
Period Administration Translator's notes
Tang Dongguan County. AD 618-906
In 757 it came under the
jurisdiction of Guangzhou
Prefecture
Five Dynasties Donguan County of AD 907-959
Xingwang Prefecture
Song Dongguan County of AD 9604279
Guangzhou Prefecture
Yuan Dongguan County of AD 1280-1367
Guangzhou Division
Ming Xin'an County. In 1573 AD 13684643
it was created from the
Dongguan County frontier
guard area, and put under
the control of Guangzhou
Prefecture
Qing As previous. In 1666 it was AD 1644-0911)
abolished and became part
of Dongguan County, but
was reinstated in 1669.
Illus. 2.2 {Continued)
(c) Maps of Xin'an County, 1688 and 1819; from Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County: A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univer-isty Press, 1983), Map 1 and Map 3 (Illus. 2.3a & b).
These maps may have aesthetic and 'atmospheric' effect. They provide little detail or precise information, especially about schooling. It may, however, be significant to notice that Hong Kong Island does not appear as such on either map. Clearly, and to say the least, the island was not regarded as noteworthy by the Chinese of the time.21
21. See also Peter Ng, op. cit., p.l.
&
v
105
3. Extract from the Tang Family History, a much revised and treasured manu-script produced within the family (Illus. 2.4).
The following extract and translation from a family source may also add verisimili-tude and specificity to the treatment of pre-colonial education in Hong Kong which this chapter offers. The Tangs trace their roots in the Hong Kong region (and more specifically in villages in or near Kam Tin, Yuen Long and hau Fau Shan in what later became known as the New Territories) to the Sung Dynasty. One of the early clan-leaders married the daughter of the Emperor, a later Tang was supposed to have owned the whole of the island of Hong Kong, and Tangs in most generations gained civil service examination honours and, thereby, scholastic, social and politico-administrative status. The family history proudly records these successes and, as will be seen below, can be 'triangulated' with other primary sources, such as tombs, records in ancestral halls and study halls, as well as such respected (and non-Tang) secondary sources as Sung Hok P'ang's articles on Legends and Stories of the New Territories.
The page reproduced here provides a geneology of the first generations of the Tang family, including Tang Fu Hsieh (fourth generation) who actually came and settled in Kam Tin and, later founded the Li-ying College, as well as his father, whose tomb can be seen in Evidence 4(a). Roughly translated, the relevant portion of the genealogy reads: 'Tang Fu Hsieh. He was awarded the Zun Shi degree in the fourth year of the Ch'ung-ning era in the Sung dynasty (1105 A.D.) and assigned to rule Yang Chun county [in Kiangsu province!'.
4. Photographic evidence.
(a) The 'Boon Yut Chiu Tarn' or tomb of Tang Yat Yuk, Tang Fu Hsieh's father, near Tsuen Wan in the New Territories (Illus. 2.5).
The poem engraved on this grave was composed by Pak Yuk Shim, a renowned poet of the Sung Dynasty and revered artist and scholar to whom magical powers have been attributed. According to Sung Hok-P'ang, this poem is 'remarkable for the curious allusions that were made to the future'. Sung's translation ofand comments12 on each line of the poem follow:
1.
Tut out the left hand as far as Sing Hill,
2.
running as far as to Tsing I island was it in the green waves/ (These two lines refer to the position of the grave.)
3.
'In deep night one harbour all the stars appear/ (Alluding to the lights of Hong Kong harbour in the future.)
22. See Sung Hok-P'ang, 'Legends and Stories of the New Territories: Kam Tin', reprinted in Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 13 (1973), 115. A discrepancy can be detected between Sung's own transcription of the poem and the markings which can now be seen at the tomb itself. In the second line, he inserts and translates the character for 'running', when, in fact, and as a balance to the first line, the actual character in the second line which can be seen today represents 'on the right hand'. This character is identified in a photograph below.
-fc^S-
it ^2v IpT
is*
ff 35-*￡ t> f I F
Illus, 2.4 Extract from the Tang Family History.
4.
Inside harbour there will be ten thousand ships passing to and fro .' (The trade that was to come to Hong Kong.)
5.
If anyone can find the proper site of the grave,
6.
In thirteen years' time his descendants will pass the highest degree of Government examinations/ (This came true in so far as the Tang family were very successful in passing examinations and some of them became high officers and men of rank.)
7.
'If people in the world try to find, and are unable to find it,
8.
turn your head and ask the young fisherman/ (Referring to the grave again. When Tang Fu Hsieh was finding the place for the grave the local villagers pointed out to him a stone known as the Fishing Stone which helped him to decide the site.
m
Illus. 2.5 The tomb of Tang Yat Yuk near Tsuen Wan.
(b) Photographs of wood-carvings in Sin Sui Study Hall, San Uk Tsuen (Illus. 2.6).
The villagers' interest and pride in education receive impressive confirmation via the quality of the decorative material still to be found in some of the study halls. There can be little doubt that both representational and symbolic enrichments to the learn-ing/teaching environment, themselves, had educational as well as purely ornamental purposes.
iiiiH in i? m ‧ Mint
RI
Illus. 2.6 Wood-carvings in Sin Sui Study Hall, San Uk Tsuen.
kl
^ |r.|i <* /
BfP
~ * * ' mJrmr
HSli
Hi Up ifill Li
P1W)::
r f*i if 'If* ' k^l :'jp
m
%TfT;— a M
El
1.
Screen decoration detail.
2.
Decoration detail on a screen panel.
3.
Intricate carvings from the ancestral shrine.
Illus. 2.6 (Continued)
(c) Examination successes.
The pride with which honours from success in the civil service examination was regarded is shown clearly in the fact that the original emblems of these successes are often still preserved and displayed in ancestral hails in the New Territories (Illus. 2.7).
Illus. 2.7 Emblems recording successes in civil service examinations.
Illus. 2.7 (Continued)
(d) Ssu-shu and study halls (Illus. 2.8).
The remains of both the humbler 'ssu-shu', where children learned their first formal lessons in Chinese culture, and the more scholastic-type study halls may be discovered in many parts of the New Territories. Many of these date back to pre-British times. To counter the prevailing conviction that all Chinese education was textual and highly formalized, it might be noted that outside almost all ancestral halls is a quite large stretch of flat ground, intended to be used (and actually used through-out the generations) for children's play. Nowadays, some of these play areas have been appropriated for other purposes (such as car parks) and the children confined to much smaller and morerigidlyformalized playgrounds.
Illus. 2.8 Ssu-shu and study halls in the New Territories.
.SP
- Illus. 2.8 (Continued)
5. Play, work and leisure apparatus.
Kicking a type of shuttlecock to keep it under control required considerable agility and skill. It was a popular pastime for Chinese children in Hong Kong. The abacus was a necessary implement for traders and training in its use, even if ignored by formal instruc-tion, was clearly indispensible. A type of family-based vocational training would also have been required for initiates into the fishing or farming occupations. Performance on one of the traditional Chinese musical instruments also required training, as well as skill. Public performances by opera troupes and puppeteers provided a form of informal education for the non-literate. The evidence for these forms of informal education includes a brief extract from an early encyclopedic book on the Chinese by a Western observer23 and the copies of several lithographs (Illus. 2.9), some of which were produced before the British officially took possession of Hong Kong Island.
SHUTTLECOCK. — The usual reverse occurs in China with regard to some of the games that happens with many other things in this land of contrarieties. Instead of shuttlecock being more especially a game for girls, it is more especially a game for boys, lads, and men. No girls ever play it. It may almost be said to be the national game of China, and kite-flying the national pastime. The latter is indulged in in autumn; the former in winter, though it is played at other times as well. What seems curious about the two is, that, though children find an amuse-ment in them, they are largely enjoyed and indulged in by those who can scarcely be described as children, except with the qualifying phrase 'of an older growth' appended.
There is no battledore used by the Chinese, but the shuttlecock is kept up in the air by the foot, the broad white sole of the Chinese shoe acting admirably for the purpose. Two, three, four, or more players get together; and, if two, stand opposite each other, if three or more, they form an irregular ring and kick the shuttlecock up into the air in such a manner that it may fall near another player, so that there is no violent exercise except what is necessary for the kicking. If a foot stroke is impossible, when the shuttlecock is falling near one, then it is allowable to keep it up hitting it with the hand and thus send it to another player, or to bang it into the air in such a way that it may return in a position to be easily hit by the foot. There are several foot-strokes — the most common being with the inner side of the sole of the right shoe. A hit is sometimes made with the outer side of the sole of this shoe. Another hit that must require some dexterity (if we may be allowed to use such a word in connection with the foot) is given with the right foot
— with the inner side of the sole of the right shoe — from under the calf of the left leg. The most usual form of this stroke is as follows: the left leg is doubled round so that the foot is in front of the body and about ten or twelve inches from the ground: this is done while the shuttlecock is descending: and, when it is almost
23. J. Dyer Ball, Things Chinese; or, Notes connected with China, 5th edn., revised by E. Chalmers Werner (Shanghai, Hongkong and Singapore: Kelly and Walsh, 1925, reprinted, with an Introduction by HJ. Lethbridge, by Oxford University Press, Hong Kong, 1982).
Playing at Shuttlecock with the Feet
Kite-flying at Hae-kwan on the Ninth Day of Ninth Moon
Illus. 2.9
Scene from the Spectacle of "The Sun and Moon"
Dyeing and Winding Silk Illus. 2.9 (Continued)
117
near enough to hit, a spring is taken off the ground with theright foot last, and the shuttlecock is immediately hit by the inner side of the sole of the right shoe from under the left calf. Another variety of this stroke is to stretch the leg out in a sloping direction downwards from the body with the foot a few inches above the ground, and then a similar stroke is made as described above. Another stroke is made with the sole of the right foot from behind the body, the foot in delivering it being kicked backwards and upwards. With many of the strokes delivered from the feet, the shuttlecock is sent up some ten, twenty, or thirty feet into the air, though occasionally a forward kick is given which directs it towards another player, with perhaps a slightly rising direction. The play often begins by one player tossing the shuttlecock with his hand up in the air toward another player opposite him. The object of the play is, of course, to keep the shuttlecock up as long as possible. The shuttlecock itself is rather different in construction from that in use the West, no cork being used; but a number of layers of skin are employed, the two outer being snake's skin and the inner ones are said to be shark's shin, there being from eight or ten to twenty layers. The feathers used are duck's feathers and three in number.
6. Extracts from Sung Hok-P'ang, legends and Stories of the New Territories: Kam Tin', reprinted from the Hong Kong Nauralist 6 (1935), 213-18; 7 (1936), 31-36,159-62 and 249-56; and 8 (1937-38), 106-10 and 201-207; and in Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 13 (1973), 118-20 and 14 (1974), 170-77 (Illus. 2.10).
Sung Hok-P'ang (1880-1962) was a respected scholar who took pains, in the tradition of Wang T'ao, to impart a knowledge of Chinese culture to Westerners. He held a number of senior educational appointments with the Hong Kong Government, including Head-master of Belilios Girls' School, Inspector of Schools in the New Territories, Senior Vernacular Master attached to Queen's College, Senior Vernacular Master at King's College and Adviser of Chinese Affairs in the Governor's House. A memoir of his life and achievements by Lo Hsiang-Linis appended to the first (Volume 13) part of the reprint. His articles combine scrupulous attention to written source material with an enthusiastic collection of folk and family lore.
[2]
Kwai Kok Shaan where Tang Foo built his school is one of the five famous hills of San On, and is mentioned in the book of "To Shue Chaap Shing". The name was originally Kwai Kok ( ￡ ￡j), ^ Kwai meaning sceptre made of jade; but later it was changed to Kwai Kok ( ^ $ ), ￡￡ being the Chinese name for olea fragrans, a flower that is considered to be very lucky. There is an old saying,
Illus. 2.10 Extracts from Sung Hok-P'ang, 'Legends and Stories of the New Territories: Kam Tin'.
Shim Kung Chit Kwai (§ifj#r;j￡), "eager to break a branch of the Kwai from the Palace in the Moon." Shim Kung means Toads Palace. According to an old Chinese legend the moon was inhabited by a toad, who was originally Sheung Ngoh (if^ ) the wife of a feudal prince and famous archer named Ngai (^f) who lived in the time of the Emperor Yiu (^ ) B.C. 2357. Ten suns are said to have been in the sky at that time, and the heat was so great that all the grass was burnt up. The emperor commanded Ngai to shoot the suns down which he did, and as each sun was inhabited by a large crow their feathers all fell down on the earth. Nine suns were shot down, but one was too far away to be reached, and that is the sun that still remains to this day. Ngai was very afraid of dying, and he went to a fairy called Sai Wong Mo (\§ JL# ) who gave him some medicine for long life. Sheung Ngoh stole it, and took it in secret. She became lighter and lighter and eventually floated up to the moon where she became a toad. She had a palace to live in which was called the Shim Kung. Another story tells of a Kwai tree growing in the moon, 5,000 Chinese feet tall. A man called Ng Kong (^#|), who had been sent to the moon as a punishment by the gods for having committed something wrong when learning to become an immortal, was always chopping it with a large chop-per. He never managed to cut it down, because as soon as a cut was made in the trunk, it instantly grew together again. Thus the saying "Shim Kung Chit Kwai" which applied to those who passed the highest government examinations, gradually came into use since the T'ong (yg) dynasty, A.D. 618. There were many Kwai trees on the hillsides of Kwai Kok Shaan, either planted by Tang Foo or someone later, and the teachers are supposed to have sent their pupils out from the school to pluck the sprigs of flowers with the idea of encouraging them to further effort.
Another name for the hill is Ngo T'aam Shaan (jj$;]$ih ), turtle pool hill. There is a pool still to be found on the hillside, which, according to one story, used to have turtles living in it. Another story says that it had a rock looking like the head of a large turtle. In olden times all the successful candidates who had passed the government examination, Tsun Sz (ig,-￡‧) went up to the emperor's palace to sit for a further examination named Tin Shi ( $￡1^0' Those who passed had their names put in order of merit on a list written on gold paper, and at a ceremony known as Ch'uen Lo ( flf-$|) the names were read out. The two candidates at the top of the list were led up the steps of the palace by the master of ceremonies, who then presented the first candidate, called the Chong Yuen (/j￡ X,), with the list. At the top of the stairs was a turtle carved in
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
stone, and finally the Chong Yuen was caused to stand with his foot on its head. Thus he was known as "Tuk chim ngo t'au ( $§= solely, alone, ￡ = occupy %=turtle, jjg =head.)" The scholars at Kwai Kok Shaan when wandering on the hillsides would amuse themselves by standing on the turtle-head rock and shouting "I am the only man to put his foot on the head of the turtle!" Though the name of the hill "Ngo T'aam Shaan" is almost unknown by most of the New Territory people now, a village near, formed re-cently by people returned from California and elsewhere, still fol-lows the name of the hill "Ngo Taam", but the villagers in the New Territory dialect mispronounce the character % ngo=turtle to ^ ngau=bovine animals and give the name of the village ^^4 -(Ngau T'aam Mei), the end of the bovine animals pool, instead of % ^ >C (Ngo T'aam Mei), the end of the turtle pool.
This pool is also called Lit Nui T'aam {fJSck^) meaning vir-tuous girl pool. About the time of the Sung dynasty there was a village girl called Man Kam So (x4^$f ).w^° wa s about eighteen years old and very beautiful. One day she was out grass-cutting with several older women when she happened to stray away from them, and found herself near the pool. Suddenly she was accosted by a youth, she shouted to her companions for help, but in her terror she did not hear their answering shouts, and to save her virtue she sprang into the pool and wast drowned. It is said that the name actually was given by the scholars themselves in her honour, and the pool was also called Yat Waan T'aam (—jf Jjfi), one coil pool. In those days married women had their hair done up in a series of coils, while the unmarried girls put it up in one coil only.
The word Kok means horn. Thus according to the "T'o Shue Chaap Shing" the Kok in Kwai Kok Shaan referred to the two peaks of the hill that look like a pair of horns. The book also mentions that if the hill was clouded rain would certainly come. On the hill is a stone called the fairy hair-dressing stone, Sin Nui Soh Chong Shek ({Or^ifclM?), and at the bottom of the hill a stream called Kwai Kok Ts'uen (iiffi^O, which is a famous place of scenery. It is recorded in "T'o Shue Chaap Shing" and other books, where it is said that the fountain is sweet and smooth for the tongue. Even now when the scholars of Kam T'in happen to call there, they draw some water from the stream and drink it, saying ffc y}L jg ffi Yam shui sz yuen, "in drinking the water think of its source," which is a Chinese maxim, or adage for descendants in remembering the virtue and the good work done by their ancestors. Almost at the
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
top of the hill are two big rocks one on top of the other looking like huge grinding stones about 50 Chinese feet tall, with a passage through. A family of tigers are said to have lived there once, so it is called Lo Foo Ts'z T'ong (%jfifc]'k)> tiger hall. The floor of the cave is quite smooth with a lot of small stones almost like a mosaic. Though the actual site of the school is not known, old tiles have been found from time to time on the hillside, and one of these can be seen in a house called Ch'eung Ch'un Yuen (-^4^R ) of Shui T'au (y^MH) village. In the same house is a flower vase of interest that was dug up on Hong Kong island about 30 years before the British settled there.
As mentioned before, four of the "five Yuens" eventually left Kam T'in and founded branches of the Tang family elsewhere, and it has even been said that Yuen Leung, the ancestor of the Kam T'in branch, moved to Mok Ka Tung (-H-^M ) near Shek Lung, but this removal is generally attributed to Yuen Leung's daughter-in-law, a princess of Sung dynasty whose story reads almost like a romance. She was a daughter of the Emperor Ko Tsung (% ^) of Sung Dynasty, who before becoming emperor of China was Prince Hong Wong (^i) . The Tartars at that time were attacking the North of China, and in the 2nd year of Tsing Hong (j^ijt.) A.D. 1127 they entered the Sung capital, captured the two emperors Fai Tsung (#:^ ) and Yam Tsung ($:^ ) together with both the mother and wife of Hong Wong, who was himself away in another part of the kingdomfighting the Tartars as he held the appointment of T'in Ha Ping Ma Taai Yuen Sui ( ATA^^iX.^l the com-mander in chief of all the emperor's forces. Hong Wong's little daughter was only ten years old and she was protected by her women servants who fled with her to the South. In the 3rd year of Kin Yim (jfcjl) A.D. 1129 they arrived in the Kiangsi province where Yuen Leung was district officer of Kung Yuen (if H) district. He was very zealous to help the Emperor and had collected together an army of soldiers, with the intention of marching North. Kiangsi was full of the Tartar forces, and the princess found herself sur-rounded by enemies. One day she saw the Sung flag over the encampment of Yuen Leung's army and she went to him for pro-tection. She stayed with Yuen Leung, moving about with his soldiers, and eventually when he returned to Kam T'in he brought her back with him. He did not know who she was, as the servants had told him only that she was the daughter of a high official in the North. The princess found happiness and security in Kam T'in. She was like a daughter in Yuen Leung's house, helped with the household duties and was quite content.
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
[5]
During and since the Ming dynasty Kam T'in has been able to boast of many scholarly and notable sons.
Tang T'ing Ching $$& ￡ who passed the Kui-yan ^LA degree in the 7th year of Shing Fa fci& of Ming 0/] dynasty, A.D. 1471, was appointed to the office of Kau Yue $fc.2fr of Maan On &￡‧$$ district in Kiangsi province, promoted later to District Magistrate of T'ang Yuen jfc. ||Kwangsi. He was a great friend of Hau Kui ^Jg-a well known poet of the New Territories. His poems are included in an anthology named "Ling Naam Chue Yuk" %&)3fc 3± and also in the Record book of San On and among them is a poem written as a farewell to Tang T'ing Ching when he left to take up his new official post. The oldest family tree book of the Tang family of Kam T'in in existence now was compiled by Tang T'ing Ching.
Tang Leung Sz $p %.$b passed Kung Shaang ^ ￡. degree in the 38th year of Maan Lik J | /f of Ming dynasty, A.D. 1610, and held the office of Fan-to i>\\ *fc .
Tang Yue Cheung |￡Ja-# took his Sau-t'soi -% j[ degree in the 2nd year of Yung ching % JL of Ts'ing ?§- dynasty A.D. 1724 and in the following year became a Lam Shang J$ ￡.. In the first year of Kin-lung l^ggr A.D. 1736 he passed Kui Yan, second in the list of successful candidates, but just failed to pass the Wui Shi ^$ ￡ examination the following year. However his name was put on the Ming T'ung Pong list Hflii# and he was appointed as Hok-ching fr JL of Tak Hing Chau & ￡ H\, in Kwangtung province. Tang Yue Cheung's name in the San On Record book^j-^^^ is among the "Heung Yin" $p ^ or "village worthies," and it is said there that: — Tang Yue Cheung was a scholar of a very kind and honest nature. He was very "taan-chik" JR. j [ ("to wear the heart upon the sleeve for daws to peck at") and his knowledge of learning was very wide. In all his dealings with his friends he was sincere and faithful, and as a Hok-ching he was very diligent. Once some of his students fell out with the authorities, and found themselves faced with a
false accusation, but were too afraid to defend themselves. Tang
however at once entered into the dispute, and through his clear-
headedness kept his students out of trouble. In the 17th year of
K'in Lung A.D. 1752 Tang was called to the capital to attend an
examination, but he died there, and Fung Shing Sau Lam 4&-f￡ graduate) wrote the epitaph "for his name lives for ever,"
to be carved on his grave.
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
tne on
Tang Man Wai $H$iJ& wa s ty Tsun-sz 3￡ i graduate to come from the New Territories, and his name is recorded in the San On book under the column devoted to hang yee fjt￡ "men of high repute." He was left fatherless at an early age, and had to work with the fishermen and wood-cutters in great poverty, to earn money to support himself and his mother. But all the while he was a scholar at heart and in his spare time he read his books and people said that he could he heard continually humming his lessons on the road, as he carried wood or worked with the fishermen. His uncle Tang Chan Ng i*p^# a Lam Shang, helped him, and his success in later years was greatly due to the old man's teaching. In the 14th year of Shun Chi))% % A.D. 1657, Ts'ing dynasty, he passed his Kui Yan degree, but later failed for Tsun Sz and so returned to Kam T'in where he passed twenty years or more, living as a hermit. He then returned to the capital, and stayed in General Ngai's ^ house where he was able to make friends with many famous scho-lars. He wrote a book named "Yin t'oi san ngai" $t*i:$t# which had a preface written by Ts'oi Shing Yuen j^ft jt> Noi Kok Hok Sz ^fi a political minister of high rank. Three years later Tang passed his Tsun sz degree, and was appointed district magistrate of Lung Yau Yuen ftSN$ i n Chekiang province.
Tang Man Wai was of a kind hearted disposition and some say that through this the wall of T'aai Hong Wai was built. The story goes that when Tang passed his Sau Tsoi degree he was sent to Kwai Shin If .§- district, now Wai Yeung % !§‧, to collect the rent due on cultivated lands, belonging to his family property. While there he came across a young man named Lei Maan Wing ^-Un-hanging upside down as a punishment. On asking the reason why, Tang learnt that Lei had contracted gambling debts and was unable to pay them. Tang was sorry for the young man, paid all his debts and was able to use his influence in obtaining a military post for him. This happened during the end of the Ming Dynasty. Later on when the Manchus drove out the Mings in the North and the Ming Emperor Wing Lik ^ f% had retreated to Kwangtung, Lei was a colonel under Cheung Ka Yuk %L%L5. who wasfighting against the Manchus. When Cheung was defeated in battle in the 4th year of Shun Chi j\%% A.D. 1647 of Ts'ing dynasty, and drowned himself, Lei, who was with him, fled with about a hundred soldiers. Gradu-ally many of Cheung's soldiers were able to rejoin him, and with a strong army he attacked both Tung Kwun ^| ￡ and San On #j-.g-districts. He drove out the Manchus, and made his headquarters in what is now known as the New Territories. One of Lei's camps
IUu§. 2.10 (Continued)
was situated in the district round K'ei Lun Wai Jt^Hl P'ing Shan ^j_ , and T'sing Leung Fat Yuen jf ?￡-;￡-&. Before the latter, which is a nunnery, was built, the locality had been known as Ying P'oon Tei *f* JIA , "The ground of the camp," and while the build-ing was in progress the workmen dug up many old coffins which were supposed to be those of Lei's soldiers. Among them was found a general's sword, broken in many pieces. Anyone going to Kwun Yam Shaan ^L^>li to visit the Ling Wan monastery ^#4 * would notice half way up Taai Mo Shaan, far above the cultivated land, a stretch of hillside that has been terraced and flattened out in some former time. This is supposed to have been another of Lei's encampments. Lei burned and pillaged, and most of the inhabitants of the New Territories fled. It was said that for three years the country presented the appearance of a battle-field, "The ground was covered with bones, in the day time nothing could be heard but the hum offlies, and at night the voice of weeping." Kam T'in might have shared the same fate as the other villages but for Tang Man Wai. Lei, remembering his former kindness, forbade his soldiers to go near the place, and seeking out Tang he taught him how to build strong walls to protect his village from other marauders. This story is still told by old people in the New Terri-tories now, and, if true, what was stated in H.K.N. Vol. VII, page 255 ... . "during the civil wars of the Hong Hei years A.D. 1662-1721 of Ts'ing dynasty these three villages were walled . ... " is not correct. Lei Maan Wing occupied the New Territories from
A.D. 1647 until he surrendered to the Manchus in A.D. 1656 which means that the walls of Taai Hong Wai, at least, were built some time during that period. Tang Man Wai is also remembered for having built the old Yuen Long Market % ^ $&, in the 8th year of Hong Hei A.D. 1669. The date is inscribed on a tablet in the wall inside Taai Wong temple ^ .￡ jgj in the market. Tang also made three fish ponds to the west of the market place which can still be seen by the side of the main road.
Tang Fong Sp^ was a notable scholar who passed his Kui Yan degree in the 27th year of Kin Lung of Ts'ing dynasty, A.D. 1762. He studied a great number of books especially the canons of Con-fucius and Books of Histories, and was considered very skilful in writing both poetry and prose. While he was still a Lam Shang he was employed as a professor of arts in Man Kong Shue Yuen X. H
‧^ g￡ a high grade school in San On district situated in Naam T'au Shing & Jj[^ the capital city. Students were prepared there for the Sau-tsoi examination, and it was said that while Tang Fong was there "learning was at its highest pitch."
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
Tang Ying Yuen $p￡?L was a military officer and passed his Mo Kui Yan ^dfLA degree in the 54th year of Kin Lung A.D. 1789 of Ts'ing dynasty. Although of a martial disposition, Tang was fond of books and his penmanship was highly thought of. Some of the characters that he wrote to be carved on stone tablets can still be seen in Ling Wan & jb nunnery on Kwun Yam Shaan $a
‧^^ and in So Lau Yuen tff^ffl and Tsoi Shui Yat Fong && — -% both school buildings in Kam T'in. He was a simple man and used to help his grandfather in the fields, working like the farm labourers and he was much beloved in Kam T'in. In the 15th year of Ka Hing A.D. 1810 the coast of San On was repeatedly attacked by a large fleet of pirate ships, and the district magistrate asked for sanction from the throne to move the fortress then existing at Fat T'ong Moon \% %; f5 near Lyemun to Kau Lung Ju$l (Kowloon) city. This was granted, but money to do the work was scarce. The magistrate went to Tang in his difficulty; Tang said, "The hill round Kau Lung are full of large stones. Why not explain to the local masons that they should work on such an important matter for their country, for low wages." The magistrate, knowing that Tang had a great gift of persuasion with the country people, begged him to undertake the task. Tang was successful, the stone masons agreed to do what he suggested and when the fort wasfinished Tang wrote four big characters Chan Hoi Kam Tong ^.^-^ ^ . Chan to guard, Hoi the sea, Kam the city was built by strong metal, T'ong hot water; i.e. the water in the city moat is like boiling water that no enemy would dare to cross. These characters were carved on a large stone tablet which was built in the wall of the fort; unfortunately it is no longer to be seen. The public dispensary outside the Kowloon city wall now occupies the original site. Another useful public work that Tang Yin Yuen was responsible for, was the rebuilding of Man Kong Shue Yuen X.ffl^ g￡ the high grade school for San On district. This building was originally inside the West gate of the capital city of San On, and owing to the low-lying ground it was most unhealthy for the teachers and students. A desirable site was inside the South gate but objections were raised by a native of the town who declared the land to be his own property. Tang went to law on his own responsibility, and when the district magis-trate declared himself unable to give judgment he took the case to a higher court. He won and the new building was completed in the 11th year of Ka Hing J . j | A.D. 1806. A new name was given to the school, Fung Kong Shue Yuen Jt,$)#K and Tang carved — MtX-% yat ch'an pat yim, "not soiled by a particle of dust" over the top of the main door. Before he died Tang wrote in his will
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
that he hoped one day one of his descendants would teach in the school and help to train good citizens. This wish was granted in 1904 when his great grandson Tang Wai Man ^^f^went to teach in the school where he stayed seven years. Tang Ying Yuen helped to compile the "History of San On," and his house is still to be found in Wing Lung Wai where his portrait in military officer's uniform is to be seen.
Tang Ming Luen $$% % the son of Tang Kuen Hin was another military officer. He was a very powerful man with exceptional strengh in his arms. When he was young and before he studied the military arts, he came across, one day, two water buffaloes fight-ing in a road. The people standing by were unable to pass and yet could do nothing to separate the animals. Tang Ming Luen seeing this, seized each buffalo by the horn, wrenched them apart, and stopped the fight. It happened that a newly passed Kui Yan named Tang T'in K'ei fp^ m who came from Tung Kwun district was visiting Kam T'in to worship at the ancestral hall, and, according to old Chinese custom, to report the good news of his degree to his ancestors. He witnessed Tang Ming Luen's feat of strength and greatly admiring him, he encouraged him to study for the army, giving him ten taels of pure silver sycee as a reward. Tang Ming Luen passed his Mo Sau Tsoi in the 25th year of Ka Hing A.D. 1820, and the Mo Kui Yan in the following year. There is another story that Tang Ming Luen dug up some hidden treasure in his orchard, which was near Sui T'au Ts'un. To the North of the garden there was a large banyan tree and close by it a rock covered with creep-ing plants. On dark days it was said that a light used to shine near this rock and at a distance it apppeared like a big white horse. One day Tang told a labourer to dig a hole for planting a fruit tree in a corner of the garden where a lot of long grass was growing. In doing so the man dug up a large earthenware jar with a lid on it, which was full of silver sycee. He seized a handful of them and started to carry them home, but at once his eyes became dim-sighted and he was unable to see his way. Thinking that it must be a punishment for trying to take money that did not belong to him, the man put the coins back in the ground, asd his sight recovered at once. When he told Tang of his discovery, Tang had the ground thoroughly dug, and many more jars, each full of silver coins, were found.
Tang Kuen Hin ^p^^f was born in the 20th year of Kin Lung,
A.D. 1755, and he built a school called So Lau Yuen ff fa g) in Shui Tau Tsuen, one of the Kam T'in villages. This building has a
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
curious carving inside, rather like the face of a clock with Roman lettering on it, the origin of it being unknown. Another building called Ch'eung T'sun Yuen -^ ^ ffl was built by one of his descen-dants, a picture of this is shown on plate. Tang Kuen Hin was very rich and was very proud of his family. He had four sons and twenty-four grandsons and the number of his family and servants together are said to have totalled two hundred. To the northwest of Yuen Long market are some very fine fish ponds situated in particularly pleasing scenery. This land was Tang Kuen Hin's pro-perty, it now forms part of the "Ching Sheung" $L f entailed pro-perty, the proceeds of which are applied to ancestral worship.
Notes on Some of the Government Examinations of China. The Sau-ts'oi ^> -% was the first examination and in many res-pects could be likened to that which is held for the Bachelor of Arts degree. The Candidates for this examination, which was held in the capital and several other towns of each province, were very numerous, as all with any pretence to education, were anxious to graduate in Sau Ts'oi. In consequence it was necessary for each candidate to be guaranteed by a man specially appointed to the office called "Lam Shang," j^. ￡. whose duty it was to stand as surety for the identity of each of his examinees. Another examination, Heung Shi #p ^ , to be attempted was for the Kui Yan ^L A degree which was also held in the capital of each Province. Possessed of this degree a man was eligible to hold the office of District Magistrate, etc. Between Sau Ts'oi and Kui Yan were five different titles of Kung Shaang -jf>￡ the holders of which could be appointed as District Magistrates, etc. Wui Shi ^: R was a higher examination held in the Capital of China. The degree which was known as Tsun Sz ^-i , was institu-ted in A.D. 606, and could be compared with a Doctorate. Can-didates who failed in this examination, and yet had written papers of a high standard could have their names put on a list called Ming T'ung Pong a$ i4# , which made them eligible for holding the posts of Hok Ching Jj^jL, the Director of studies in a "Chau" jf| or de-partment, or in the Imperial Academy, and Kau Yue ^fc-jgf, the Director of studies attached to a District. After a man passed Tsun Sz degree he attended an examination in the Imperial Palace. This was called Ch'iu Haau .$>$‧, Court examination. If he passed he then obtained the title of Shue Kat Sz j& -# ± . He then went to the Hon Lam Yuen4lbfcl% where he
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
stayed for several years drafting documents for the Emperor and when he had finished, he received a good appointment in a Govern-ment post.
The examinations that it was necessary to pass before a military post could be obtained, were similar to these, the name of each one being the same with the prefix of mo ^ ; thus mo sau tsoi, mo kui yan etc.
[6]
If one walks through Kam T'in Market ( gfyw ip)9 turns to the right, and reaches Shui T'au Village OJc5j[#) a fifteen minutes walk will bring one to an old bridge, which is mentioned in the San On Record book (^j-^-^ ^ ) and which is held in much respect by the New Territories people, as an example of filial duty done by a good son of Kam T'in. The bridge is called Pin Mo K'iu (^-§r#-) "bridge for the convenience of my mother," and it was built in the 49th year of Hong Hei (% JR) A.D. 1710 of Ts'ing dynasty, by Tang Tsun Yuen (Sp^L^L). a nineteenth generation decendant of the "Five Yuens."
Tsun Yuen was born in the ninth year of Hong Hei, A.D. 1670 and died in the ninth year of Yung Ching (0,JL)9 A.D. 1731. The original home of his family was in Shui T'au Village (^IR # ) b ut his mother, who was a widow, moved to T'aai Hong Wai C^ ^ 8)) with her two sons. When Tsun Yuen married he rebuilt the old house and returned to Shui T'au but his mother stayed on with her younger son in T'aai Hong Wai as there was not room enough for them to live all together. But every day the mother wanted to go to Tsun Yuen's house to see her young grandsons, and to get there she had to cross the stream. Tsun Yuen used to go to the stream at a certain hour each day and wait there till she came, and wading into the water, he would carry her across on his back. The visit ended, he would escort her to the stream again, and take her across. When the tide rose it was sometimes too deep for him, so he would stay with his mother on the shore and wait with her till the tide fell and he was able to get across. This went on for a long time but he had made up his mind that, although he was poor, he would save up his money to pay for the building of a bridge, and at the end of six years he was able to do so, much to the admiration of the Kam T'in villagers. The elders in later years often used this story when teaching the young people, as an example of a good son.
Illus. 2.10 (Continued)
7. Extracts from the early issues of Chinese Repository, 1832-41.
The following extracts provide some indications about missionary attitudes towards Chinese education and may help as a 'bridge' into Chapter 3.
(a) I (1) (May 1832), 6 ff, and 15.
.. . Review .. . citing from an 'Ancient account of India and China by two Mohammedan travelers who went to those parts in the 9th century, translated from the Arabic by the late learned Eusebius Renaudot...
. . . There are schools in every town for teaching the poor and the children to write and read, and the masters are paid at the public charge.
(b) I (8) (December 1832), 305.
.. . The Chinese have four degrees of literary rank; 'Sew-tsae', 'talent flowering'; 'Kew-jin', 'a promoted man'; Tsin-sze', 'introduced scholar'; and Tian-lin', 'ascended to the top of the trees'. By the first, the individual rises one step above 'the simple people/ and becomes a candidate for the second degree; which, when obtained, makes him eligible for office. By the third, he is qualified for an introduction to the imperial presence; and by the fourth, raised to the summit of literary honor. The Chinese have always paid great attention to learning. 'Of old, families had their schools; villages, their academies; districts, their colleges; and the nation, her uni-versity; of consequence no one was left uninstructed. Not exactly so now; for although the schools, both public and private are numerous, yet they are poorly conducted; besides, probably not less then two-tenths of the male and nine tenths of the female population, are utterly destitute of instruction.
(c) II (6) (October 1833), 249-51.
.. . To qualify the young for these [civil service] examinations, and thereby prepare them for rank and office in the state, is a leading object of the higher schools and colleges among the Chinese. But a great majority of the schools in Canton are designed only to prepare youth for the common duties of private life. These latter, as well as many of the higher schools are private establishments. And though there are teachers appointed by gov-ernment in all the districts of the empire, yet there are no public or charity schools for the benefit of the great mass of the community. Whatever may be his object and final destination, almost every scholar in Canton com-mences his course at some one of the private schools. These, among the numerous inhabitants of this city, assume a great variety of form and character, according to the particular fancy of individuals...
Children are not generally sent to school until they are 7 or 8 years old: they enter, usually, for a whole year, and must pay for that term whether they attend regularly or not. The wages of the teachers vary greatly: in some instances (and they are not infrequent in the country) the lads pay only 2 or 3 dollars, but generally 15 or 20 per annum.* when the teacher devotes his whole time to 2 or 3 pupils, he often receives a hundred dollars or more from each.
The ordinary school room, with all its defects, presents an interesting scene. At the head of it there is a tablet, on which the name of the sage — 'the teacher and pattern for myriads of ages' — is written in large capitals; a small altar is placed before it, upon which incense and candles are kept continually burning. Every morning when the scholar enters the room, he bows first before the tablet and then to his teacher; the former is not merely a tribute of respect, but an act of worship, which he is taught, nay, compelled to pay to Confucius. The boys usually continue in school from six o'clock in the morning until six in the evening, except two or three hours which they are allowed for their meals. When in school they all study aloud; and each one raising his voice at the same time, and striving to out do his fellows, the noise of the whole is very great.24 Upon those who are idle or disobedient, the teacher plies the rattan with woeful severity. Every lesson must be committed perfectly to memory; and the lad who fails in this, is obliged to bow down and learn it upon his knees; and those who are the most incorrigible are made to kneel on gravel and small stones, or something of the kind, in order to enhance their punish-ment.
The San-tsze-king, the famous 'three character classic/ is the first book which is put into the hands of the learner. Though written expressly for infant minds, it is scarcely better fitted for them, than the propositions of Euclid would they be thrown into rhyme. But 'it is not to be understood' at first; and the tyro, when he can rehearse it correctly from beginning to end, takes up the Four Books and masters them in the same manner. Thus far the young learners go, without understanding aught, or but little of what they recite; and here, those who are not destined to a literary course, must close their education. The others now commence the commentary on the Four Books, and commit it to memory in the same way; and then pass on to the other classics. The study of arithmetic, geography, history, and so forth, forms no part of a 'common school' education.
The high schools and colleges are numerous; but none of them are richly endowed, or well-fitted for the purposes of education ...
24. Cf. Stewart's bewilderment over the noise of the Central School pupils when he first arrived in the school. See Evidence 12 in Chapter 1 above.
(d) III (7) (May 1834), 42^3.
[Citing a 'communication... from the pen of a Christian lady, who for a few years back has been engaged in educating Chinese girls] .. . In attempts to turn it [the Chinese Empire] to Christ, female instruction should not be undervalued; females have a great influence upon both the morals and the politics of a nation. Youth are generally under the superin-tendence of the female sex. But how ill qualified is the Chinese woman for this or any moral duty!...
It is an important question what can be done for the improvement of the circumstances of Chinese females in the present state of China Proper? There are systems of exclusion and seclusion there, which prevent at present much being actually attempted for their improvement. Moreover the sex is generally and greatly despised. Very few females in China can either read or write ...
(e) IV (1835-36), 1, 7-8, and 167.
Education among the Chinese, from time immemorial held in high esteem, has always exerted a dominant influence on the manners, habits, and policy of the nation .. . According to native historians, 'Families had their schools; villages, their academies; districts, their colleges; and the nation her university: and consequently no individual in the empire was left uninstructed ...
.. . By neglecting to educate females, and to take proper care of chil-dren in the first few years of their lives, the foundations of society are corrupted, and the way is prepared for all those domestic, social, and political evils, with which this land is filled. Such are some of the particu-lars in which education among the Chinese is defective in regard to its extent.
Equally deficient are the purposes and the means of education in this country... In short, it seems to us that in no one particular, are the means of education commensurate with the wants of the people.
... No book can be read or understood till the forms and significations of several hundred characters, some of which are very complicated and difficult, have been committed to memory. This, probably, has led the Chinese generally to defer the commencement of education,25 till the child is six or eight years of age...
25. This comment, like the similar one in Evidence 7(c), is confined to formal schooling and ignores the informal education which took place within the extended family. It may, however, help to explain the relative slowness with which many Chinese took up opportu-nities for formal, institution-based early childhood education such as kindergartens.
(f) V (1836-37), 147-48.
[Citing the Malacca Observer and Chinese Chronicle for 10 April 1827] . . . The comparatively little regard which the Chinese pay to the sense of the authors they profess to teach, in the first instance, is a capital defect in their system. They are not so anxious to fill the mind with ideas as to load the memories with sounds and crowd the imagination with symbols. It is somewhat singular, since the Chinese are reputed for their sagacity in conducting pecuniary matters, that no provision whatever is made in their schools for teaching the science of numbers; even their swar pwar is not taught the boys, their education comprising writing and read-ing only. Abstract science of any description has little or nothing to do with their education ...
(g) VI (1837-38), 235-36.
[From the first annual report of the Morrison Education Society, read before a general meeting convened in Canton, 27 September 1837 by the Rev. Mr. Bridgeman.]
.. . The method of teaching has, no doubt, been modified by the char-acter and style of the books used. When the pupil enters school he com-mences learning from the diction of the master, the latter reading, and the former, endeavouring to imitate his teacher as perfectly as possible. As soon as he is able to read a few lines or sentences, the child is seated by himself and continues the repetition, until the lesson becomes so familiar that he is able to back it, ie., repeat it with his book behind his back. Book after book is backed in this manner. In the mean time, lessons are begun in writing. The Chinese paper, used for this purpose, is so thin; that, perfect copies being placed beneath it, the pupil can trace the letters with his pencil, and so take off a facsimile of the copy. After having pursued this course for a year or two, and become familiar with the forms of a few hundreds, or perhaps thousands of characters, the teacher commences a course of explanatory lessons, proceeding over the ground already trod, and explaining, word for word, and phrase after phrase, what has already been committed to memory...
In the country, each village, or subdivision of a village has its own school room. Some of the apartments of temples, especially those dedi-cated to ancestors, are frequently employed for school rooms . . . The scholars are not arranged into classes but are seated promiscuously, the old and the young together. Each has his own table, which is about three feet long and one and a half broad, furnished with a drawer and writing apparatus. The boys are seated on bamboo stools, most of them with faces towards the master, who occupies an elevated seat at one of the corners of the room...
8. Extract from the Rev. R. Krone, 'A Notice of the Sanon [Xin'an] District7, re-printed from Transactions of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 6, 71-106, a lecture read before the Society on 24 February 1858, in Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (1967), 104-37; this extract pp. 126^29 (Illus. 2.11).
Rudolph Krone was a German missionary of the Rhenish Missionary Society who first arrived in Hong Kong in 1850. Like Eitel and others, he took up his work on the mainland, in what is now known as the New Territories and, therefore, although containing a number of errors, his work offers interesting insights into missionary views of educational condi-tions in the district nearly a half-century before much of it was leased to Britain. It also suggests comparisons with data from the Chinese sources, especially the 1819 Gazetteer of the region.
Let us now direct our attention to the Schools, Teachers, and the class of Literati. There is no lack of schools; in the first place there are numerous elementary schools, in which boys in bodies of from ten to thirty, are taught to read and write the characters. The teacher in these schools receives an annual salary from the parents of his scholars, varying from 20,000 to 50,000 cash; besides this he is found in rice, and if he does his duty well, and makes himself popular, he receives presents in kind, and is also invited by turns to dinner. The places which serve for school-rooms are generally the ancestral halls; but sometimes temples, and occasionally vacant private houses, are used for the purpose. Regular school-rooms are scarce in the villages, but are found in towns and larger places. Each boy brings his own table to the school, and very often lives altogether at the place, so that he may continue his studies with less interruption. The pupils attend the school on an average for eight months of the year, the other four months 'being spent in field labour.
The books taught are, the Trimetrical Classic JL ^ *S., the
anc* lne
Thousand Character Classic ^^% . Tau-hok i$Q ; after the boys have committed these to memory, they proceed to learn the Four Books, and finally the Five Classics.' AH the boys how-ever do not devote so much time to study; such as afterwards engage in trade or learn a handicraft usually only remain at school from two to four years, during which time they acquire sufficient knowledge of the characters to carry on business, write letters, and make out accounts, &c.
Illus. 2.11 Extract from the Rev. R. Krone, 'A Notice of the Sanon'.
If a boy intends to devote himself entirely to study, he enters a higher school in which graduates train young men for the examina-tions. Such schools exist at Namtow, Sai-heong, Kap-shui-hau, San-keaou, and many other places. Kap-shui-hau ^ 7^ x* > is famous for these schools, and, as the Chinese say, "diffuses the fragrance of pen and ink." Many youths repair thither to study; many inhabitants of the village itself have succeeded in obtaining a degree; and several flag-staffs in it bear witness to the rank of the person over against whose dwelling they are erected.
The method of teaching observed in these schools is the following: The student is made thoroughly acquainted with the contents of the Four Books and the Five Classics. The teacher explains each passage, and the pupils are required to repeat the explanations on the following day. As the knowledge of the student increases, he is instructed to write essays on a given theme. To acquire expertness and fluency of style, the student obtains a large number of essays, which he must read and commit to memory. He is also instructed in versification. Writing essays and making verses are the two principal requirements in the examinations at Canton for the degree Sew-tsai. Arithmetic, geography, astronomy, or other sciences, are not taught, and are not considered necessary in education.
The first examination, by which no degree is obtained, is held
in the district city by the "Che yuen" ￡‧ % P^—or district ma-
gistrate. About 300 young men attend this examination, and
about one-half of these, who have some hope of obtaining a degree,
proceed afterwards to Canton, to undergo the examination of the
Foo — under the superintendence of the Prefect. These examina-
tions take place three times in two years. The number of gra-
duates to be chosen at each examination from the applicants from
the district of Sanon, amounts to ten persons — eight of whom
must be Pun-ti, and two Hak-ka. There are in the district about
150 Seu-tsai % $ , and the village of San-keaou boasts of having
produced the largest number of them. There is a difference of
rank among the Seu-tsai, twenty of the senior bearing the title of
Nam-shang. These Nam-shang JL ￡ have a small pension from
Government, and receive some fees from the aspirants to the
examination at Canton, who have to procure from them a certi-
ficate in reference to their character and acquirements.
There are only four Keu-jin ^. A in the district; these are all
Puntis, and from its western part. They are all engaged in teach-
ing.
Illus. 2.11 (Continued)
There is only one individual in the district who possesses the degree Tsin-tze ig,-±-, the famous Chan-kwei-chik f^i^k H of Sha-tsing. This man held office in Peking, but was obliged to retire on account of the decease of his parents. One of his parents dying just as the time of mourning for the other had expired, his exclusion from office was protracted to the term of six years. During this period he led rather an indolent life, occasionally en-gaging in the healing art; but he was never much known till the time when the differences between the British and the Canton authorities commenced in 1856.
He then offered his services to the Governor General, promising to inflict severe injuries on the British. To effect this, he organised a force of village braves, and endeavoured to stop the supply of provisions to Hongkong. The district magistrate was not at all pleased with the ascendancy of this man, and in several instances showed his dissatisfaction and disapprobation of Chan-kwei-chik's plans. The latter, however, having been invested with dictatorial powers by the Viceroy, exercised them according to his own discretion, and cared nothing for the approbation of the district magistrate, who was at this time his inferior.
The measures which he adopted were however unpalatable to the people, who rose against him in the district city, and forced him to retire to his native place. It is said that he also got into the bad graces of the Viceroy, who accused him of having squan-dered public money, and drawn large sums without effecting anything against the enemy. Chan-kwei-chik is still in retirement in Sha-tsing, and amuses himself by playing on the seraphim which he stole from Mr. Genahr's house in Sai-heong.
No natives of the Sanon district at present hold any high office in other provinces. Since the commencement of the present dynasty (1644), six natives of this province have obtained the degree of Tsin-tze, and 54 that of Keu-jin.
In ttie superior grades of the military, the natives of this district did not show at all well during the first two centuries of this dynasty, for during this time they could boast of only two military Tsin-tze, and twenty-four military Keu-jins. Forty years ago a more military spirit seems to have arisen amongst them, and the examinations for military degrees have been better attended.
Illus. 2.11 (Continued)
135
9. Statistics.
The population statistics provided in Table 5 are taken from Peter Y.L. Ng's transla-tion of the 1819 Gazetteer (Illus 2.12).26
Ming Dynasty
Qmg Dynasty
Year 1573 1582 1593 1603 1613 1622 1632 1642 16 (44-61)" 1662 & 1664
1667 1672 1669-1671
1673-1685
Popt ilation f o
Households
7608 7752 7752 3572 3500 3500 3491 3589 2966 after 2 evacuations
there still remained — —
Persons
33971 34520 13202 16675 16696 16248 16992
17871 6851
— 3972
4525
Males Females
— —
19627 1488326
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
5567 1284
2172
2255 1412
— —
1648 returned from evacuation
1501 assessable for salt tax.
957 returned from evacuation, and were newly added to the register.
1585 assessable for salt tax.
Illus. 2.12 The population statistics provided in Table 5 of Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County: A Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region.
26. Peter Y.L. Ng, New Peace County: A Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region, prepared for press
and with additional material by Hugh D.R. Baker (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1983), pp. 90-93.
Year
1686-1711
1713
1716
1721
1726 ]
1731
16864731
17364761
17414761
1766
1766
Households
new registrations
were by imperial decree no liability for tax on any future increase in population by birth
new registrations
graciously exempted
from tax
newly registered
returnees
original assessment
plus new registrations exempt from tax and
all new registrations
made up of
+
exempt new registrations
+
new registrations a prosperous age with
many new births
registered (assessable for
salt tax) a reduction of (salt tax quota)
a reduction of
The actual increase by birth was: (salt tax quota) and it was graciously
decreed that there should be no further tax quota increases
a prosperous age: new registrations
Persons
-
—
—
—
7289 —
— —
—
— — — —
— —
—
Males Females
303 359
— —
11
5
— ~ \ 5332 1284
11 303 359
2855
(730) 208 (10) 75
2572 (720)
407
Illus. 2.12 (Continued)
Households Persons Males Females Year
1771 a reduction of — 88 -the actual increase by birth was — 319 -
it was graciously
decreed that there
should be no further
tax quota increase
1771 a prosperous age: new registrations — 402 -it was graciously decreed that there should be no further tax quota increase Incorporated on the closing of the Dong-guan Garrison 46.828
1772 from this year the practice of registering numbers of new births ceased. They were no longer entered in the main books but in separate annual reports29
1772 The first such report:
civilians &L salt-workers 30373 21121 9252 garrison personnel 1821 1356 465
17734818 Discounting deletions the actual number of new births plus those originally reported was:
civilians & salt-workers 225979 146922 79057 garrison personnel 13136 8298 4838
Illus. 2.12 (Continued)
10, A balanced education in pre-colonial Hong Kong (Illus. 2.13).
Although there is little doubt that schools in Hong Kong, as in the rest of China, became even more rigidly formalized and Confucian text-based during the Qing Dynasty, this is only part of the story as far as 'education' in pre-colonial Hong Kong is concerned. Evidence 5 suggests reasons for believing that, in addition to the formal schooling system, there were many opportunities for informal education of a wide variety of types. Many of these operated within the family. They included what later became called 'family life education', types of unformalized vocational training whereby the young learned farming, fishing or trading skills from their elders, such aspects of physical education as the kicking of a shuttlecock, tai-chi, kung-fu and other martial arts, a whole range of aesthetic educa-tion such as learning to play one or more of the traditional Chinese musical instruments, as well as learning and practising calligraphy and other fine arts, and non-literate means of edification like puppet and vpera troupes. The cartoon below is meant to restore the balance of Chinese traditional education and to infiltrate some doubt about the typical Missionary dismissal of the traditions as unthinking formalism.
TRADITIONAL CHINESE EDUCATION
FORMAL INFORMAL Illus. 2.13 A balanced education in pre-colonial Hong Kong.
Chapter Three
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME 1841-65
COMMENTARY
From the very first British efforts to gain 'possession' of Hong Kong and certainly during the early insecure years of its colonial administration, no one regarded it as a typical colony. Individuals might disagree about whether the island was of some use primarily as a trading depot or as a military and naval base, but nobody seriously argued in favour of its potential value for the settlement of population or for the long-term commitments that this encourages. From the outset, the prospect of returning the island to China was a real one. To several individuals, especially those concerned about health conditions and/or disappointed in personal ambi-tion, the prospect was also an attractive one.
In this context, especially in a period when the outcome of trading was uncertain and the possibilities of profitable industry rare, it is hardly surprising that the provision of new educational opportunities appeared to be relatively low on many people's lists of priorities. Even in the best of times, it was not exactly a consuming interest or pressing concern 'at home' in Britain.
One group of people, however, came to Hong Kong, struggled with variable success against the medical and economic 'climate', and strove to establish schools. These were missionaries. They arrived in Hong Kong from various parts of the world and they represented many different Christian denominations. But they shared one common desire — to evangelize through education. Their efforts were not always welcomed, especially in years of economic and political insecurity. Not all the people they were trying to save appreciated their attempts. The 'variations' of the chapter-title were, therefore, partly 'fluctuations' on a missionary theme and these fluctuations were influenced by the nature and size of the Hong Kong population.
The population of Hong Kong increased from an estimated 5,650 in 18411 to
1. The first Gazetteer and Census of Hong Kong, dated 15 May 1841, claimed that the 'actual present population' totalled 7,450, but by 24 June 1845, the Registrar-General, Samuel Fearon, could write: 'Before the cession of Hongkong to the British Crown, its population amounted to about Four thousand souls. Of these 1500 perhaps were engaged in the cultivation of rice; about 2,000 in the fisheries and the remainder gained a subsistence by furnishing supplies to the fishing vessels resorting to the harbour.' (CO 129/12, p. 305)
Eitel suggested that the figures provided by thefirst Gazetteer and Census were inaccu-rate; he disputed in particular its attribution of the status of 'capital, a large town' and the estimate of 2,000 inhabitants to Chek Chu, see Eitel, Europe in China (Oxford University Press, reprint of the 1895 Kelly and Walsh edition, 1983), p. 171.
about 15,000 in 1842, 23,000 in 1845,39,000 in 1853, 75,000 in 1858, 94,917 in 1860, 119,321 in 1861 (after the cession of the Kowloon peninsula) and 125,504 in 1865. In 1841, the Chinese population comprised mainly fishermen and peasants. In the years following British occupation, numerous labourers, artisans and shopkeepers flocked into Hong Kong, the population remaining predominantly male and adult (and, of course, Chinese). Several contemporary observers, some of whom felt they had reason to be embittered, commented on the low social calibre of the population.2 Questions could certainly be posed on the effects this may have had on the motivation for providing and utilizing schools. Deprivation in socio-eco-nomic terms and, especially, isolation in ethnic terms, might have encouraged some Chinese and later Eurasians to seek advancement through the radically new educational opportunities presented by the arrival of foreigners.3 In the late 1850s, a few wealthier Chinese merchants used Hong Kong as a sanctuary from the troubles caused by the Taiping Rising. Questions also suggest themselves about the attitudes they may have developed towards the various options open to them for the education of their children and how these attitudes differed, if they did, from those held, for example, by unskilled labourers.
Hong Kong's early years as a colony were characterized, as mentioned above,
The statistics quoted for the other years are taken from official reports by the Regis-trars-General, found in the various Blue Books and CO 129 files.
2. For example, R. Montgomery Martin, the Colonial Treasurer, wrote on 17 June 1844:
T cannot estimate with any accuracy the amount of revenue which these
different sources of taxation might produce for several reasons.
1st. The unsettledness of the Chinese population who are continually moving
to and from the Colony and who have no interest at stake in its prosperity.
2nd. The notoriously profligate character of the Chinese inhabitants of
Hongkong, which is evidenced by the murders, attempts at murders, Piracies,
Burglaries and Robberies which have been committed in the Colony without any
effectual discovery of the perpetrators.
3rd. The absence of Chinese of respectability and prosperity and even of
married men of the humbler classes who are more afraid of the predatory and evil
habits of the population than Europeans are ... ' (CO 129/6, p. 309)
It might be noted, however, that, as Sir John Davis pointed out, Martin's 'remarks were written after only a few weeks' residence under circumstances of very indifferent health' (CO 129/7, p. 44) and that his views about Hong Kong were so jaundiced that he soon commenced a protracted campaign against Davis and the very existence of Hong Kong as a colony.
On the other hand, comments about the low calibre of the Chinese population were not uncommon in the 1840s. See Evidence 10 below.
3. Some support for the hypothesis that members of the 'marginal' population, such as boat-women, were particularly anxious to take advantage of the new educational opportunities for their (often Eurasian) children may be garnered from the opinions of E.J. Eitel (see Evidence 5 (b) in this chapter) and the research of Carl Smith (e.g., in Carl Smith, Chinese Christians .. . (Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 170).
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
by uncertainties, both political and commercial. These were reflected in the vicissi-tudes of the early schools. As might be expected in a period which witnessed two Anglo-Chinese wars, relations between the Chinese and the British in Hong Kong were not always harmonious.4 As might also be expected in a small, but heteroge-neous population of foreigners, there was considerable social fragmentation among the non-Chinese in Hong Kong.5 The objectives of Government officials, military officers, missionaries, taipans and 'bong-ban'6 were certainly not identical or, at times, compatible, even in the field of education. One may wish, therefore, to examine contemporary records to discover what influence these ethnic and social tensions had on the development of, and attitudes towards, schooling and also opportunities for informal education.
More specifically, a study of the 'missionary theme' and its Hong Kong vari-ations is likely to be very rewarding. As already intimated, there can be no doubt that much of the initiative and energy for establishing schools during the first years of British administration came from missionaries — Protestants of various denominations and Roman Catholics of various orders. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that some missionaries were interested primarily in the mainland of China and considered the field offered by Hong Kong too limited and uncer-tain.7 It is also true that, even if they were prepared to devote themselves to Hong Kong, an excess of proselytizing zeal was sometimes considered to be counter-productive. Thus, Sir John Bowring, Governor of Hong Kong from 1854 to 1859, suggested that 'the missionaries alone give active assistance, yet they have special objects that unfit them for general and popular education'.8 Despite the sympa-
4.
The most dramatic manifestation of the lack of harmony was probably the attempt at mass-poisoning of the Europeans in 1857. See G.R. Sayer, Hong Kong, 1841-1862: Birth, Adolescence and Coming of Age (reprint of the 1937 OUP edition, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1980), p. 181 and Additional Note 5, p. 21.
5.
For a sociologist's comments, see for example, H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978), esp. pp. 9 ff. and pp. 163 ff.
6.
'Bong-ban' is a Cantonese expression referring to Europeans of lower socio-economic status, many of whom were employed in supervisory and uniformed occupations, e.g., police. See also HJ. Lethbridge, op, cit., esp. pp. 190 ff.
7.
See for example, George Smith to Earl Grey, 16 January 1847, in CO 129/22, pp. 269 ff., and George Smith, A Narrative of an Exploratory Visit to Each of the Consular Cities of China, 1847 (Seeley, Burnside, & Seeley, Fleet Street; Hatchard & Son, Piccadilly; J. Nisbet & Co., Berners Street, London, 1847, reprinted by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei, 1972), pp. 71 and 507 ff.
8.
Sir John Bowring to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Henry Labouchere, 11 August 1857, in CO 129/64, p. 80. A little earlier in the same despatch, Bowring commented: To confess the truth, I have wholly failed in discovering any really efficient cooperation in this important work [Education]. You will better estimate the difficulties of this question when I mention that for the last six years ￡250 a year has been voted by Parliament to the Bishop's College [St. Paul's] for the education of 6 persons destined for the public service and not a single individual from that college has yet been declared competent to undertake even the
thies of a religious-minded Education Committee9 Treaded in the 1850s by the Anglican Bishop' and including Dr James Legge of the London Missionary Society (after 1853), several mission schools foundered in this period.10 Most notable amongst them were the Morrison Education Society School and Legge's Ying Wa (Anglo-Chinese) College. One may wish, therefore, to ask from contemporary documents what they reveal about the playing out of the missionary theme, its variations and counterpoint. Why was a man like James Legge, for example, eventually ready to press for a secular type of education centred on a consolidated Government 'Central School'? And why was the Government itself willing, in the early 1860s, to give in to this pressure?
Other questions which could illuminate the examination of documentary extracts from the period and more recent research about the period include:
*
What were the factors influencing Hong Kong Chinese opinion on efforts to establish schools in the period 1842-65?
*
What were the reasons for the slow and fluctuating educational developments in the 1840s and 1850s?
*
Why did the Hong Kong Government accept James Legge's 'scheme' in 1861, having rejected his proposals in 1845, and what were the reactions of the Chinese population of Hong Kong to this scheme?
*
How did Frederick Stewart's opinions about the education of the Chinese change in the first few years of his experience in Hong Kong?
*
What were the principal motives of the educators and the educated, and how did these affect the curricula of the early schools?
*
How similar are educational developments in Hong Kong during this period to educational developments in other small colonies, e.g., Singapore?
*
In what ways did occurrences on the Chinese mainland affect schooling in Hong Kong?
*
What comparisons, if any, can be made between educational practices and assumptions in Hong Kong and those of contemporary Britain?
meanest department of an Interpreter's duty, though I have no doubt of the Bishop's zeal and wish to show some practical and beneficial result from the said Parliamentary Grant.
9.
A major Variation' on the missionary theme. For further data and comment on the role of the Government in evangelizing the Chinese population, see the Commentary in Chapter 1 and this chapter and Evidence 5(b) in this chapter below.
10.
See the Chronicle for 1849 and 1856 for explanations of these failures.
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
CHRONICLE
1841: Tuesday, 26 January witnessed the first official British landing to take possession of Hong Kong Island. Starting in February, during the spring and summer there were several 'reconnaissance' visits to Hong Kong by (mainly Protestant) missionaries from Macau. There is no record, how-ever, of any school being founded, at least by members of the European community.11
1842: Land was granted in February by Sir Henry Pottinger to the trustees of the Morrison Education society for the purpose of establishing a school in Hong Kong.12 The school (with 11 pupils) opened in temporary premises in November, having been transferred from Macau.
Land was also granted to Mgr. Theodore Joset for the establishment of a church and a seminary to train Chinese Catholic priests.
1843: 4-6 new Chinese elementary schools opened to cater for children of shop-keepers and artisans 'chiefly in Victoria'.
The Morrison Education Society School was established on Morrison Hill (24 pupils under the Rev. and Mrs S.R. Brown from Yale). An annual grant of $1,200 was offered to Morrison Education Society by Pottinger in his capacity as Superintendent of Trade.
The Catholic Church and Seminary opened in Pottinger Street.
The suggestion appeared in the missionary publication, Chinese Re-pository that the Government should appoint an Education Committee to supervise the 'native schools'.
The Rev. Vincent Stanton, who as British Chaplain at Macau, had been kidnapped and imprisoned by the Chinese in 1840, arrived in Hong Kong to take up his post as the first Colonial (Anglican) Chaplain. He immediately began negotiating for land to establish a school for the Chi-nese according to Anglican principles.
The Rev. James Legge arrived from Malacca via Macau in May and planned to open a seminary to train Chinese ministers for the London Missionary Society and a preparatory school (Ying Wa Shu Un or the An-glo-Chinese College). He also began negotiating for land.
11.
Eitel provides a very plausible explanation for this — the pre-occupation of the Euro-pean community with the business of actually moving to Hong Kong and the transient, mainly adult male and lower class characteristics of the in-coming Chinese population who 'naturally had neither time nor inclination to think of the education of the young'. (Eitel, op. cit, p. 309 and Chapter 1, Evidence 1)
12.
The Morrison Education Society had previously (1839) opened a school in Macau. See Evidence 4(a) below.
13.
According to the Blue Book for 1846, this school was opened in November 1844. The Blue Book for 1844 includes reference to a school run by the London Missionary Society with James Legge as Headmaster, in the Western District.
14.
Colonial Office records, including various departmental minutes, a minute by Earl Grey and his official reply to Sir John Davis of 12 August 1847, indicate that officials in England
144 EDUCATION IN HONG KONG - PRE-1841 TO 1941
1844: This year may count as the effective opening of the Anglo-Chinese College (Ying Wa) under James Legge (18 pupils).13
Several other small and short-lived Protestant missionary schools
were opened (including three by American missionaries).
Stanton raised money in Britain for the opening of an Anglican school
but land was not yet granted and Stanton was informed that 'the Gover-
nor would consider very favourably the claims of any institution which
would embody a scheme to remedy the want of any means of education
for the children of the European residents here, the Government consider-
ing this want as a defect which operated as materially against the prosper-
ity and best interests of the Colony .. /
1845: Stanton opened a 'Children's School', attended by 40 English children (23
boys and 17 girls). The Roman Catholic Society de Propaganda Fide or-
ganized a school for English children (7 pupils).
The annual grant to the Morrison Education Society from the Superin-
tendency of Trade was discontinued.
Stanton was promised land for his Chinese Anglican school.
9 Chinese (Confucian) schools were reported to be in existence, with
an average total attendance of 149. Charles Gutzlaff, the Governor's 'Chinese Secretary7 , proposed that
the Government should provide financial assistance for the Chinese vil-
lage schools. This suggestion was referred to England, together with the
Governor's support for Stanton's request that his Anglican school for the
children of European police, clerks and other relatively lowly paid work-
ers be subsidized by the Government.
James Legge proposed that the Government should establish a free
school for Chinese. This proposal was rejected.
1846: A girls' school (7 pupils) was added to the Anglo-Chinese College (Ying
Wa). The Roman Catholic school was reported to include Chinese pupils
in its enrolment of 21.
12 elementary Chinese (sometimes described as Confucian) schools
were reported to be in existence, with an average attendance of 181 Chi-
nese boys.
1847: After protracted correspondence with the British Government,14 the deci-
sion to provide 'moderate' grants for Chinese village schools was an-
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
nounced. An ad hoc committee was therefore appointed 'to enquire into the present state of the Chinese schools at Victoria, Stanley and Aberdeen, with a view to measures being taken to encourage one Chinese school at each of the aforementioned places under government supervision' and to 'report upon the method which in the opinion of the Committee may be most beneficial for the appropriation of the... grant ($10 per month)'. The Committee (Chief Magistrate, Registrar-General and Colonial Chaplain) reported in some critical detail about the Chinese schools, selected three to be aided and recommended the introduction of Bible Study in these schools, the appointment of a Committee of Supervision, the issue of regulations to all government aided schools, and the allocation of grants according to attendance.15
6 December marks the date of the formal appointment of the Commit-tee of Supervision (generally known as the Education Committee).
1848: On 23 February, Tsue Shing Cheung at Victoria, Lo Ah Man at Stanley and Man A Yuh at Aberdeen were appointed to three schools for Chinese children, these schools receiving $10 per month from the Government.16
The Report of a Committee of the House of Commons on Commercial Relations with China included the recommendation for an increase of education in the Chinese language both for Chinese and non-Chinese in Hong Kong. Little action was, however, taken in Hong Kong.
Three Sisters of the Order of St. Paul de Chartres arrived in Hong Kong to take charge of an orphanage ('Asile de la Sainte Enfance').17
required more explicit information, before they were willing to recommend that the Treas-ury approve financial aid for education in Hong Kong. Such information required included especially the number of children likely to benefit, the control over teachers and the curriculum, and the prospect of sectarian disputes. Grey made it clear that he objected to the idea of assisting Stanton's school because it was a private school and therefore, the Hong Kong Government would be able to exercise little control over the mode and matter of instruction. The parents of prospective or actual pupils were mainly in Government service and were, therefore able (and expected) to pay the expenses of their children's education themselves; this was another objection. On the other hand, as Grey pointed out, 'with respect to the Chinese Schools, the case is different, the amount of assistance is extremely moderate and religious difficulties are not likely'. See CO 129/19, pp. 239 ff., and, for Sir John Davis' despatch of 16 March 1847, Evidence 5(b) below. The importance of parsimony remained instrumental in policy decisions about education in England, as well as Hong Kong, for some time. See for example, Evidence 8(b) and 17 in this chapter below.
15.
See Evidence 8 in Chapter 1 above.
16.
Legally, they were 'appointed' to these schools. In fact, they had already been running the schools for some time and were now supported by the Government.
17.
This institution has strong claims to be regarded as the direct ancestor of The French Convent, St. Paul's Convent School and St. Paul's Secondary School. See Almost As Old As Hong Kong (Hong Kong: St. Paul's Convent, 1973), pp. 3-4.
1849: St. Paul's College, under James Summers as Headmaster, was opened and became the leading Anglican educational establishment. On 15 October, the Archbishop of Canterbury approved the statutes of 'the Hongkong Missionary Institution known as St. Paul's College'. According to Eitel, these statutes defined the objects of St. Paul's College as 'training a body of native clergy and Christian teachers for the propagation of the gospel in China according to the principles of the Church of England'.18
The Morrison Education Society School was closed, at least partly because, according to Eitel, it 'had by this time lost its hold upon the sympathies of the foreign community, and in spring 1849, a class of seven boys was transferred... to St. Paul's College, thereby raising the roll of the latter institution to 34 Chinese boys under the tuition of Mr J. Summers.'19
Stanton's 'Children's School' (i.e., the school for European children) was also closed.
1850: The Rt. Rev. George Smith, the First Anglican Bishop of Hong Kong arrived. He was soon active as a teacher at St. Paul's College and as a strong influence on the Education Committee.
A futile attempt was made to revive the Morrison Education Society School.
The Roman Catholic schools seemed to be in a flourishing condition, especially the Seminary at Queen's Road, the three Portuguese Boys' Schools in Wellington and Stanley Streets, and the School for Chinese in Taipingshan.
The Colonial Secretary, William Caine, reminded the Education Com-mittee that there should be no interference with the 'religious prejudices of the natives', but did not rescind the appointment of a new Chinese Christian teacher to one of the Government-aided schools.
1851: The Bible and Bishop Boone's Catechism were listed as textbooks for use in Government aided schools.
The annual grant of $1,200 which the Superintendent of British Trade in China had formerly given to the Morrison Education Society School was now transferred, with the approval of the Foreign Office, to St. Paul's College.
In order to motivate teachers at the Government-aided schools to
secure better attendance of pupils, the Education Committee deducted
from the salary of each teacher a certain sum for each scholar less than 30,
18.
Eitel, op. cit., p. 317. Nowadays, however, the College chooses to advance a more modest claim for 1851 as its foundation date.
19.
See E.J. Eitel, 'Materials for a History of Education in Hong Kong', The China Review XIX
(5)(1890-91), 317. See also Evidence 6(b) below.
and used the money thus saved for the purchase of Chinese books on Astronomy and Geography.20
The Hong Kong Cricket Club was founded in June 'on the piazza [praya]' below the Murray parade ground.21 The first members were officers from the various regiments stationed in Hong Kong and a few government officers and merchants.
1852: Bishop Smith was appointed (March) the permanent Chairman of the Education Committee. Soon after (July) Bishop Smith recommended that the Government should, itself, build school-houses for a small outlay. Half-yearly examinations were introduced into the Government-aided schools (now five in number) partly to test the quality of the teachers' work and partly to select boys to be transferred to St. Paul's College.
1853: James Legge was appointed to the Education Committee. Soon after this, a plan was issued offering the pupils of each Government-aided school half-yearly prizes. The tariff of the payments fixed in this plan is included in Eitel's 'Materials'. It reads:
greatest proficiency in Scripture knowledge, $1.50; in the English language, $1.00; in the Four Books of Confucianism, $1.50; in Geography, $1.00.
English teaching was introduced into two of the Government aided schools under pupil-teachers from St. Paul's. According to Eitel, this important change was a direct consequence of Legge's appointment to the Commit-tee.22
1854: In January, the Education Committee recommended that 'the study of English should in this English Colony be encouraged as much as possible'. Eitel comments that 'this recommendation was in harmony with a strong feeling now arising once more among the European residents who fre-quently complained that the whole educational energies of the Colony served almost exclusively to benefit the Chinese and promoted Chinese literature, whilst the children of European and other non-Chinese resi-dents were (owing to their unwillingness to attend what were virtually
20.
CO 129/39, p. 127, which includes the 'Report of Government Schools for the Past Year, dated 24th December 1851', in the Blue Book, 1851, p. 11. See also Evidence 9 below.
21.
An early photograph of a game being played on this site is reproduced as Evidence 19(b) below.
22.
Eitel, op. cit., p. 322.
Chinese schools) almost entirely neglected.'23 The Government did not,
however, take any action on the Committee's recommendation.
1855-59: These years marked a decline of missionary schools (e.g., Ying Wa closed in 1856). This was caused partly by the anti-English feelings stimu-lated by the Second Anglo-Chinese War, partly by competition from Government-aided schools which had increased to 19 in number by 1859. British success in the war and, especially the further concessions gained in the Convention of Peking, 1860, contributed, especially after 1860, to an increase in the number of missionaries in the area and to a revival of missionary activities in education.
1855: St. Andrew's School was established, after a public meeting on 6 March, by prominent local residents (mostly Europeans) who disliked the relig-ious character of missionary schools and the schools under the Education Committee. Prominent at the public meeting was Mr Andrew Shortrede, Editor of the China Mail, who declared that 'it was not very creditable to Hongkong that, though it had existed for twelve years as a British Colony, it was without a Public School for instruction in English, so that the children of our countrymen were less cared for, growing up in greater ignorance, than the Chinese.' St. Andrew's School, financed from public subscriptions, offered instruction in English to over 100 children of 10 nationalities. The school was supported, at first enthusiastically, by volun-tary contributions. It closed in 1861.
1856: Ying Wa was closed at the end of the year 'owing to the results not justifying its continuance'. The objective of training Chinese youths to become Christian ministers ready to serve the purposes of the London Missionary Society in China had not been achieved. There was little problem about initially attracting pupils because the curriculum of Ying Wa featured English studies prominently. Once a certain amount of facil-ity in English had been gained, however, the pupil tended to become more interested in opportunities in commerce and Government (as clerks and translators) than in the religious field. An awareness of this situation seems to have had a significant influence on James Legge, who, from about this time, became an energetic leader of the 'secularist' movement.24
1857: Yielding to pressure from the Education Committee, the Governor, Sir John Bowring, agreed to appoint the Rev. W. Lobscheid (of the Rhenish Mission) as the first Inspector of Government Schools. After some negotia-tion, it was settled that Lobscheid should work full-time as Inspector, but
23.
Ibid.
24.
See for example, Evidence 12 below.
that he should not be a member of the reconstituted Education Commit-tee, which would make annual reports to the Government having itself received half-yearly reports from the Inspector.
Under this new system, the government-aided sector increased. By the end of the year there were fifteen 'Government schools' in operation, with 568 pupils reported as being in average attendance (among whom there were now, for the first time, 26 girls).
1858: Fr. (later Bishop) Timoleone Raimondi arrived in Hong Kong. His influ-ence was to lead to increased Catholic activities in education. Apart from the 'Government' schools, there were, according to Eitel, about nine private schools on Hong Kong Island entirely supported by Chinese. A Government Gazette Notice of 27 November informed parents and guardians that 'Schools for gratuitous instruction had been established by the Government of Hongkong, within the City of Victoria, and through-out the Island, wherein the Chinese Elementary Books, their Classics, Geography etc., and the English language is well taught by competent Na-tive Teachers.'25
1859: St. Andrew's School seems to have changed significantly in purpose and composition. The principal attendants at this School are Portuguese and Chinese, besides some Parsees and children belonging to other coun-tries.'26 The Diocesan Native Female Training School was founded by Mrs Smith, wife of the first Anglican Bishop at the end of the year. Bishop Smith informed the Government on 12 December that this school was about to be expanded into a boarding school under a lady teacher ex-pected from England and that he intended to place the institution under the supervision of the Education Committee. He asked the Government to grant 'a site and funds' for building a house for the accommodation of the Chinese girls and the residence of the English mistress. The Government placed one of the houses in Albany Terrace at the disposal of the Educa-tion Committee and the Diocesan School was temporarily located there.
1860: The Education Committee was replaced in January, by a stronger Board of Education which included in its membership James Legge. The powers and duties of the new Board were defined by the Colonial Secretary to en-compass the appointment, transfer, suspension and dismissal of school-
25.
See Evidence 11 below.
26.
Cited in Eitel, op. cit., p. 339. Eitel comments that 'these words appear to indicate that Mr. Shortrede's original idea in starting this School for the particular benefit of the children of English residents in the first instance, had by this time been found to be impracticable'.
masters and the fixing of their salaries, as well as the general supervision and control of all Government schools. Lobscheid immediately resigned, withdrew his resignation after a few weeks and then, five months later, finally resigned as Inspector. In July, Dr Legge introduced his scheme to consolidate Government schools to the Board, at first orally. The Board resolved that Dr Legge be invited to submit his scheme in writing, and in September, unanimously recommended that the scheme be approved.27
Miss Baxter, Miss Magrath and Miss Legge opened schools for Chi-nese and Eurasian girls in this year and the next.28 Three Canossian Girls' schools were opened on Caine Road in May, under the recently arrived Italian Sisters'.
In September, a small Roman Catholic school for European boys was
opened in Staunton Street. This later became St. Saviour's College and still
later was renamed St. Joseph's College.
1861: Legge's scheme was approved by the Governor (9 January) and the Legis-lative Council (25 March). The Board of Education was authorized to find a suitable appointee for the joint post of Headmaster of the Consolidated (Central) Government School and Inspector of Government Schools. James Legge was empowered by the Board to draft a circular letter to be for-warded (10 April) to the Registrar of London University and to the Princi-pals of the Universities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen, requesting them to recommend candidates for the post to Bishop Smith, who was then in England and who was to make the final selection. As might be expected, the circular contained expressions characteristic of James Legge's think-ing. For example, in describing the existing Government schools, it is noted that 'they are not religious schools, but the Sacred Scriptures in Chinese are used as a class book'. Legge's own pre-occupations and ideas are also reflected in the following comments:
The Headmaster will be expected to acquire the Chinese lan-guage, without a knowledge of which he cannot fill the situation efficiently.
Under the right man the Institution will not only benefit the Chinese population of this Colony but tell powerfully on the enlight-enment and progress of the adjoining Continent.
27.
See Evidence 12 below for more details of the scheme.
28.
See Eitel, op. cit., pp. 342-43, and Carl Smith, op. cit., pp. 5 and 208. Miss Sophia Harriet Baxter (the best known of these philanthropic young women), Miss Magrath and Miss Eaton came out to Hong Kong in response to an appeal from Mrs Smith, the Bishop's wife, to the English Society for the Promotion of Female Education in the East. Miss Legge was James Legge's daughter.
151
The Legislative Council authorized the purchase of premises for the new 'Central School' in Gough Street for $20,500 and the erection of additional buildings on the same site.
The Diocesan Native Female Training School, 'being a Christian School and constituted differently from the Government Schools', was removed by the Board of Education from the list of schools receiving financial aid and supervision.
Mr J.J. Mackenzie, prominent merchant, was appointed to the Board of Education.
James Legge became Acting Chairman of the Board of Education. Near the end of the year, Bishop Smith informed the Board that he had selected Mr Frederick Stewart, M.A.(Aberdeen), as Headmaster of the Central School.
The first volume of James Legge's translations of the Chinese Classics was published.
1862: The Government Central School opened during February29 in premises on Gough Street. Mr (later Dr) Frederick Stewart, Headmaster of the Central School and Inspector of Government Schools, arrived in March. On 3rd June, J.J. Mackenzie presented a memorandum to the Board of Education which, supported by Stewart and endorsed by the Board (8 October) was published as 'Regulations for the Government Schools in Hongkong7. These regulations excluded elementary Chinese from the Central School's curriculum, permitting Chinese pupils to be admitted only after an examination in Chinese. By this provision, the other Govern-ment schools, which did offer elementary Chinese, became feeders for the Central School. Children of Hong Kong residents were to be admitted to the Central School free of charge, but those of outsiders were to pay fees. At the request of the Board, Stewart drafted some Ttegulations for the Better Administration of the Government Schools (outside the Central School)', which were amended by the Board on 17 November and pub-
29. As Ng Lun Ngai-ha and, earlier, Gwynneth Stokes note, there has been a slight differ-ence of opinion about the exact date of the opening of the Central School. Frederick Stewart always regarded the day of his own arrival, 10 March, as the real opening date. On the other hand, the 'Report of the Board of Education for 1862' (Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1863,
p. 87) states that the school was opened in the month of February. There is some support for this in an article in the Yellow Dragon, the school magazine of Queen's College, written by the second Headmaster, Dr Bateson-Wright. Bateson-Wright, then in retirement, wrote: 'In February last occurred the Jubilee of The Central School'. To confuse the issue a little, Eitel claims that Stewart actually arrived in Hong Kong on 18 February 1862 (Eitel, op. cit., p. 345). Endacott, in his History of Hong Kong (p. 140) further complicates the matter by stating, without acknowledging any sources for the information, that 'the Central School was opened on the 1st January 1862'. See G.G. Stokes, op. cit., p. 19; Ng Lun Ngai-ha, op. cit., n.34, p. 44.
lished in Chinese translation. These fixed the school-hours at seven and three-quarters a day, with four hours 'for the study of the Bible on Sun-days — when desired by the parents of at least six scholars'. Loud bawling at Chinese reading was forbidden.30
Frederick Stewart was authorized to sign all vouchers of educational expenditure as Tiead of the Education Department7.
1863: The Diocesan Native Female Training School moved into a newly erected building on the corner of Bonham Road and Eastern Street. Miss Baxter was running four separate schools, two for Eurasians and two for Chinese, throughout this year.
A new Roman Catholic school was opened under the name of 'West-point Chinese Day School'. Eitel claims that this was probably 'the germ from which later on the West Point Reformatory sprang up'.31
A relatively trivial dispute over notices in the Government Gazette possibly indicated the fragility of the position of the Board of Education. A second English master was appointed to the Central School.
1864: The West Point Industrial Reformatory' was opened under Ignatius Ip Uen, James How, Aloy Leang and Asam Wan and taught 45 Chinese boys such crafts as shoe-making, carpentry, tailoring, and bookbinding. This institution may certainly be regarded as the first initiative in technical education in Hong Kong. It later received an annual grant of $1,000 from the Hong Kong Government for its work in dealing with delinquents and was the forerunner (operating on the present site) of St. Louis' College.
Fees were introduced in the Central School, applying to all pupils attending the English classes from 1 January 1865.
The Inspector of Schools was invited to become a member of the Board of Education and, in fact, soon became the most reliable member in terms of attendance.
The Government reserved in perpetuity nine acres of land on 'Gov-
ernment Hill' to the east of Albany Road for the enjoyment of residents as
a botanical garden.
Miss Eaton, Headmistress of the Diocesan Native Female Training School, was stoned by a Chinese mob while she was proceeding by sedan chair to school. The mob apparently associated her with the teaching of English to girls and thereby with their degradation.32
30.
Although (as Eitel commented) this probably astonished many Chinese parents, it was consistent with what Stewart felt about Chinese methods of learning and teaching. See Chapter 1, Evidence 12, above.
31.
Eitel, 'Materials...', p. 347.
32.
See for example Evidence 14 and 15 in this chapter and Evidence 1(a), 1(c) and 10 in Chapter 4. It might be noted that the unfortunate Miss Winefred Eaton of this incident later
1865: St. Saviour's College was opened in two sections (in which the official languages were English and Portuguese respectively) near the Mission House in Wellington Street, with an entrance on Pottinger Street. This was the direct forerunner of St. Joseph's College.
Miss Baxter died on 30 June (of 'Hong Kong fever'). Some of her pupils were transferred to the Diocesan School and others to St. Paul's College.
The Board of Education was dissolved and on 24 June a Gazette Notification announced that Frederick Stewart had been appointed Head of the Education Department in place of the Board. This might be taken to mark the end of a period in which voluntarism held sway in education in Hong Kong and the opening of a period in which the newly established Department of Government Schools (later to be known as the Education Department), though very small, played a very significant part in policy-making.
EVIDENCE
1. Eyewitness accounts.
The first extract below comprises quotations from one of the very earliest eye-witness accounts by a Westerner of conditions in Hong Kong, only weeks after the official landing and ceremony at 'Possession Point'. Edward Cree, a naval surgeon, also recorded his impressions in the form of water colours. One of these is a painting of the northern shore of Hong Kong in April 1841 'before the town was built' (Illus. 3.1).
The second brief extract is from a diary written nearly twenty years later by the well-known Victorian entertainer, Albert Smith. An acute and sympathetic observer, especially of the Chinese, Smith actually published his findings and opinions as To China and Back:
Being a Diary kept Out and Home.
The third extract is rather ironic about and certainly less sympathetic to the 'Celes-tials'. Alfred Weatherhead, its author, was a government clerk in Hong Kong during the 1850s. His description of the games and music of the local Chinese will be recognized by later visitors to Hong Kong. The extracted passage also offers an early version of the 'cultural desert' attack on Hong Kong, a theme which, as other evidence displayed in this book shows, was not invariably supported by the facts.
(a) The Cree Journals: The Voyages of Edward H. Cree, Surgeon R.N., manuscript in
the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. I wish to acknowledge that
became Mrs E.J. Eitel. On the dedication page of his Europe in China, 1895, Ernest Eitel inscribed: To my wife Winefred nee Eaton, in memory of thirty years of wedded lights and shadows, spent in Canton and Hongkong, this book which owes everything to her is affectionately dedicated/
permission to reproduce the text and watercolour below was given by Briga-dier Hilary Cree.
Wed. 7th [April 1841] Anchored yesterday afternoon in Hong Kong harbour. Went on shore in the cutter with some of the 18th. Landed in a pretty, secluded bay and walked up to a village, but the natives are shy. The women all ran away and shut their doors. We passed a herd of buffaloes, not pleasant looking animals. Went into the village school where we saw a lot of moon-faced urchins were acquiring the rudiments of the Celestial learning, and put one in mind of some of our village schools. They seem pretty much the same all over the world ...
Wed. 28th [April 1841] Captain Chilcott of Prince George [transport! sent his gig in which we went on board, then went with him in his longboat to a village on the mainland and walked a few miles. We were well armed and the natives were very civil. We brought some lunch — ham sandwiches, sausages and ale, which we enjoyed under a banian tree surrounded by a gaping crowd of natives.
Fri. 30th [April 1841] On shore with Bull and his wife to see the new village which is springing up rapidly in Hong Kong and roads are being constructed. Thousands of Chinese labourers are being employed.
Illus. 3.1 Victoria, Hong Kong, in April 1841, before the town was built.
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(b) Albert Smith, To China and Back..., pp. 38-39.
Tuesday, 31st. — Packing up all the morning for my first lot of baggage home: sawing off all the handles from the arms that had been given to me, and getting them bound together for transit. In the afternoon drew up my first "scheme" of my entertainment, and wrote part of my quick song. Today Mr. Dent gave me several of Chinnery's sketches — very excellent authorities. Was called on to-day, by several troublesome friends, who had evidently nothing to do, and came to hear what I had got to say, and not to tell me anything.
At four, Rozario came, and we started in chairs to the "Happy Valley," by a road cut through the neck of a ridge leading to a plain opening prettily on the sea. This is the Hong Kong race course. There is a grand stand, and behind it, on the western side, are cemeteries, Catholic, Protestant, and Indian, or Parsee. The English church is temporary, of matting and bamboo; the old one, behind it, having a fallen in. An English cemetery, very far from home, has a very touching aspect. Many of the monuments were for those who had died here on board ship, from disease or in action. Many were mounted with obelisks, and capstans, and anchors, all carved in granite. Then on, up the valley, coming to a little Chinese school, supported by the English, with the pupils at small desks, and the old schoolmaster in the corner, it was a very pleasant sight. There were English maps and alphabets round the wall; and the boys had little double paper books, with Indian ink tablets and pencils. One boy read his Chinese lesson to me, from his book, reading from top to bottom, in a sing-song voice. There was a pretty little village near here, buried in charming foliage, to which two small Chinese urchins were carrying water on a pole, followed by two smaller still, whose hats almost covered them. We walked on with fine cacti making hedges, and belts of mango and lychee trees. Here and there, water rushed down over blocks of granite, with a charming Chamouni sound about it. Kept right round the bend of the race-course, skirt-ing a native cemetery, with quantities of bits of yellow paper blowing about, which are distributed at Chinese funerals to keep the ghosts quiet. Ferns grew plentifully about, and the foliage everywhere was delicious. As we turned to come back, we met several equestrians, and people in carriages, out for their afternoon ride. The whole place was so tranquil, and pretty, and home-like, that I got very low-spirited, and did not care to talk all the way back. A solitary English hearse going to the cemetery, with nobody to follow it, did not improve the spirits.
(c) Alfred Weatherhead, life in Hong Kong, 1856-59' (typescript in the Library of the University of Hong Kong, n.d. but circa 1859), pp. 29-31.
The ways and doing of the natives have been so often and minutely por-trayed by travellers — that I need not describe them here. On the whole the Celestials may fairly be termed a monotonous set of beings. Their amusements are few, sedentary, and for the most part what we should deem childish. For instance, middle-aged and elderly folks may be seen on favorable afternoons gravely devoting their energies to the entrancing pastime of kite-flying. The said kites, by the way, occasionally display no small variety and ingenuity in construction, being made to represent birds, butterflies, fish, dragons and so forth. In quiet corners of the street under the verandahs you may see small parties disporting themselves at shuttlecock — the feathered toy being kept up, not with a battledore nor by hand, but by striking it upward with the sole or instep of the foot, or by the more expert with the heel lifted backward. Games of mingled skill and chance, something like our dominoes are greatly in favor with them. They are moreover greatly given to what they imagine to be music, and appear to extract much happiness form very primitive materials in the production of the most monotonous, dreary and inexplicable noises. The whole matter of Chinese music, to Western ears and notions, is a perfect mystery. Over and over again have I listened most attentively to their per-formances, but never could gather anything that we should recognize as an air or tune — nor distinguish anything like an attempt at harmony — the per-formers vocal, or instrumental, invariably keeping in strict unison, the singers always of the masculine gender, (females are not allowed to sing or act in public), appearing to consider a screaming falsetto as the acme of vocal excellence. One would imagine that if incapable of composing melodies of their own, they would at all events, as their organs of hearing are quite as acute as ours, enjoy the exquisite results of Western art. But no, in vain, do the military and naval bands give out their choicest strains — the natives never appear to be in the slightest degree impressed thereby, a few gaping idlers may now and then stop to stare at the performers, but evidently only to watch their mode of handling the instruments. Yet they have an Imperial College at Pekin expressly devoted to the cultivation of music; and in a class conducted for some time at Hongkong on the Hullah system during our stay, two of the members were Chinese, and certainly kept pace with the foreigners, one of them being the best sight-reader in the class. This certainly looks as if they were not altogether hopelessly unmusical. One the other hand all attempts to teach the Chinese school children sufficient of the art to assist the Cathedral choir have failed utterly, though with our Sunday school children no difficulty is experienced with a little patience. The subject of Chinese music is one well worthy the investigation of our amateurs, as affording many points of inter-esting enquiry, but time will not permit me to go further into the matter at present.
Of social amusement there is but little of any kind in Hongkong, No Liter-ary and Scientific Institution, Mutual Admiration Societies etc. A branch of the Royal Asiatic Society exists, or rather languishes there but is confined to a select few. There is, to be sure, a Library and Reading Room, supported by subscription at the high figure of $2 per month — where the members might play at chess, practise music and get up lectures, soirees, and classes if they liked. But they don't. In the first place such proceedings would involve people
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
157
belonging to different circles meeting each other, which would be highly im-proper and objectionable, and besides would necessitate some exertion of the bodily and intellectual faculties, a thing to be deprecated in a hot climate. Consequently excepting on the arrival of the mail, when the newspapers are fresh — the rooms are almost deserted, excepting by ship captains, who have the privilege of free admission on the introduction of a member, and have no other place in which to pass their leisure time. At the Club House, that paradise of the select, and temple of colonial gentility, they rejoice greatly in billiards, which game appears to contain the secret of endless amusement, to judge from the unremitting devotion thereto displayed by the youthful mem-bers of the club.
"Age cannot wither it, nor custom stale
Its infinite variety/'
American bowls (skittles are not sufficiently genteel) and a little cricketing in the winter are to be met with. At one time annual regattas were got up but for divers and weighty reasons have fallen into the cold shade of oblivion.
Once a year Hongkong wakes up, determined to be happy for a brief space, even though dollars be neglected — and the whole population native and foreign give themselves up to unrestricted jollification. The spring races are the colonial carnival. The enterprising spirit and liberality displayed is really astonishing, and the results obtained highly creditable to so small a community. The number of races is sufficient to form a very tolerable pro-gramme for three days — the race course being the only level piece of ground in the island, named in Chinese Wong Nei Chung or the Happy Valley. There is a Grand Stand, with supplementary refreshment booths, stables and so on, all after the approved model of the Derby and Ascot. At the principal race, for the Ladies Cup, the prize is usually presented to the fortunate winner by the youngest unmarried lady present, accompanied by an appropriate speech. The winding up race is perhaps the most attractive to the general public unversed in stable lore. It is for horses of every kind, mounted by Chinese. Generally the riders are stable boys, who have the care of the animals, and being very indifferent jockeys, about 50% are pretty sure to come to grief at a very early stage.
2. Extract from the first History of Hong Kong from Western eyes, William Tarrant's Hong Kong, Part 1, 1839-44, printed at The Friend of China Office, Canton, 1861.
This extract refers to the first year of Hong Kong's colonial history, 1843. The author's
viewpoint was shared by many European and American merchants, particularly his reser-
vations about missionaries and his criticisms of the Hong Kong Government.
On the 8th of June, proclamation was made (dated the 1 st) of an Order in Council providing that the Court of Justice with Criminal and Admi-
ralty jurisdiction, appointed by order of His Majesty in Council on the 9th of December 1833, should thenceforth be held on the Island of Hongkong, and have jurisdiction over British subjects within the Island, on the main-land of China, or on the high seas within one hundred miles of the coast thereof; — a Supplementary Gazette on the 22d of the month containing the rules of practice and proceeding within the said court, of which, however, no use was made during 1843.
Among the memorabilia of 1843, was the starting of another newspa-per y'clept the Eastern Globe. — The fit of spleen which produced 'the wonder' expended its gas in about a quarter. In the same month of June, too, the establishment of the paper theretofore called the Canton Register was brought to Hongkong from Macao, and for a short time was con-ducted by its old Editor, Mr. John Slade, a gentleman of good classical attainments and a Chinese scholar; a shrewd man, too, of the feast of reason and flow of soul school. The Hongkong fever carried him off in the month of August, however, and the editorship devolved on Mr John Cairns, an excellent man, though, if any thing, too kind hearted for a journalist.
The Medical Missionary and Morrison Education Societies had com-menced operations, as before stated, in 1842, and in 1843, Hongkong became the head quarters of the Tae-choo mission, under the Rev, Mr. Dean, and of the London Mission under Dr. Legge. In connection with the latter Society the following appeared in the Colonial Gazette. —
Connected with Hongkong, we observe an intimation in the daily journals which may not give unmixed satisfaction to Government. It is, that the Missionary Chinese College at Malacca is to be immediately transferred to Hongkong. Since its misunderstanding with the Jesuits and Dominicans, the Chinese Government has been, if possible, more jealous of missionaries than of any other class of foreigners. If it become aware of an intermitting effort of missionary zeal in the Island of Hongkong, the Chinese Government will be hard to be persuaded that the English au-thorities cannot stop it; and our relations with China may be embarrassed on this account. Still no Christian, no philosophical Government, could for a moment dream of refusing missionaries leave to settle in its territo-ries and teach their doctrines to all such as may apply for instruction, or of refusing leave to strangers to come and have access to the missionaries. The duty prescribed to Government alike by reason and religion, of allow-ing the gospel free course, is as clear as their duty to abstain from playing the missionary part in their own persons. In this matter, Government must in a great measure remain at the mercy of the discretion of the missionary bodies. The patrons of missionary efforts must be aware how much the progress of Christianity has at all times been accelerated when those sent to propagate it have been able to communicate new and useful information to the tribes they addressed. They must therefore see the advantage of making their College at Hongkong as complete a seminary
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
of instruction as they can, and of not confining its advantages to neo-phytes. Let them give instruction in the useful and ornamental arts, the sciences, and above all medicine. Let them avail themselves of their inter-course with the students to explain and recommend the Christian relig-ion; but let them not insist upon its profession as a requisite for admission, or for the attainment of such degrees as it may be found admissible to confer. They will thus increase their power for good. The Jesuits, who to a considerable extent acted upon their principle, might have kept their footing in China still but for the rash and vulgar meddling of the medicant orders. Let this example warn against the intrusting of the missionary task at Hongkong to uneducated zeal. The British Government would do well to encourage any inclination that may be evinced by the friends of mis-sions to employ exclusively educated and judicious men at Hongkong, by contributing something to the support of their college on condition that satisfactory evidence shall be given to it of the qualification of every man that shall be sent out. Embarrassments with the Chinese authorities may thus be avoided, and Hongkong rendered a powerful instrument of civili-zation in the East.
The Roman Catholic Church in Wellington Street, dedicated to the Immaculate Virgin, was first opened for worship on Trinity Sunday, while, not to neglect a notice of all persuasions, the Mahometans built a mosque high on the hill, and the Zoroastrians received a free grant of land for a cemetery in Navy Bay, which, however, they never made use of. Only for Buddhism was there no allotment; nor to this day do the Chinese hold a temple excepting on land for which they pay full Crown rent — the burial places of Chinese being here there and everywhere on the hills. [We must say we do think it a disgrace to the Crown to take toll from idolatry. So long as Chinese are not Episcopalians, they must have facilities somewhere for worshipping the Being they deem God, and these they should have without fee.]
3. Maps of early colonial Hong Kong showing sites of early schools (Illus. 3.2).
The maps below are based upon the first Western-style map of Hong Kong Island
produced by Captain Sir E. Belcher in 1841. Consideration of the more detailed Collinson
map of 1844 facilitated estimates of the locations of villages, etc. The first map suggests where the pre-British schools were sited. Its conclusions derive from Eitel's testimony and other contemporaneous accounts, as well as inferences from population statistics. Extrapolating from the clues left in his Journal, a person could calculate that the school which Cree mentions may have been the one Eitel refers to in Wongneichong Village or it may have been in or near Pokfulam Village or even Heung Kong Tsai. The second map identifies the early voluntary (mainly missionary) schools. Other
evidence in this chapter will enable readers to locate the Morrison Education Society
a Schools recorded by Eitel as in existence lor at least a century before the British occupation of Hong Kong.'
n Locations of pre-British schools extrapolated from other evidence
A. Schools existing on Hong Kong Island before 1841.
‧ Anglican
^ Secular (Non-denominational)
B. Schools founded by voluntary associations, 1843-1860.
Illus. 3.2 Maps of early colonial Hong Kong showing sites of early schools.
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
C. Early 'Government Schools'.
Illus. 3.2 (Continued)
School, the Anglo-Chinese College, Shuck's short-lived school on Gough Street, St Paul's College, the Roman Catholic Seminary and the school run by the Propaganda de Fide Society, plus the school which was probably affiliated to the Man Mo Temple shortly after its building was completed in 1847. Readers should note that by August 1843, there were several other 'Confucian' or 'native' schools, according to the Chinese Repository, perhaps eight or ten, in various parts of the island, chiefly in Victoria.
The third map shows the earliest Government-assisted schools (i.e., from 1848 to 1859). Note how the siting and distribution of these schools echoed the pre-colonial situation.
4. Extracts from the Chinese Repository.
Thefollowing extracts from the Chinese Repository may provide evidence about both fact and opinion in the very early years of Hong Kong's colonial history.
(a) X (October 1841), 568-69; from Article V, 'The Third Annual Report of the Morrison Education Society, read September 29th 1841'.
This Report begins with a summary of the opening address by the Society's president, Mr. Lancelot Dent. It also includes a quotation from the testimonial provided by Jeremiah Day, President of Yale, in connection with S.R. Brown's appli-cation for the post of Headmaster of the school which the Morrison Education Society
planned to open. The testimonial is very supportive, including, as evidence of Brown's abilities and suitability, reference to the fact that, after his graduation from Yale, he had been successful as a teacher of the deaf and dumb in New York.33 The Annual Report proceeds with extracts from Brown's own brief statement 'respecting his labours up to the 29th April 1840, part of which appears below, and a general description of a school-day in the school which he had opened in Macau on 4th November 1840'.
... At first, the political and commercial troubles in China cast a shade over my prospects; but finding that the president and members of the Society, notwithstanding circumstances so unfavorable to deliberation on any subject not connected with politics and trade, retained their ardor in this cause, it ill became me to be discouraged. The fears, therefore, which had at first arisen, subsided, and I endeavoured to apply myself with all diligence to the study of the Chinese language as a preparatory qualifica-tion for future labour in teaching Chinese youths34...
... I have assigned half of each day to English studies, beginning at 6 in the morning and closing at 9 o'clock P.M. Thus eight hours are given to books, and from three to four to exercise and recreation in the open air. My own study is the school room, and the pupils are therefore constantly under supervision; out of school they are not permitted to leave the premises, where there is ample room for their sports. They have never manifested any displeasure at this degree of restraint, while it excludes from them the many influences abroad which would injure their manners and morals35...
33.
It is interesting that a prominent American academic of the time should consider that experience teaching the physically disadvantaged in New York was a suitable preparation for the task of teaching Chinese pupils in the Orient. Certainly all the pupils involved might have been considered to have shared a major language disability. In the context of long periods of time during which 'Special Education' has had to struggle for attention and assistance, it is even more ironic to note that the first Principal and teacher of the very first Western-type school ever to be established in Hong Kong was something of a specialist in this field.
34.
Many of the other Westerners who, in the early colonial period became teachers in Hong Kong, exercised a similar diligence. Not least in this respect were Charles Gutzlaff, James Legge and Ernest Eitel. The effort was not, however, confined to missionaries. Frederick Stewart, for example, overcame his first language problems in Hong Kong (see Evidence 12, Chapter 1) to become well-known for his fluency in Cantonese. In Hong Kong's later colonial history, there were also several noted Sinophonic teachers — but they tended to be the exceptions.
35.
While the main impact of this passage may seem to be associated with the long hours and monastic or even prison-like conditions of study, readers might also note the propor-tion of time devoted to recreational exercise and the 'ample room for . .. sports'. In these respects, the current situation is not necessarily an improvement over the 1840s!
(b) XI (October 1842), 544-45; from Article III, The Fourth Annual Report of the Morrison Education Society, read September 28th 1842'.
The report refers to and quotes from the President of the Society, Lancelot Dent's letter of 21 February, 1842, to Sir Henry Pottinger, Superintendent of Trade and first Governor of Hong Kong, applying for a site in Hong Kong for the Morrison Education Society's school, and the very quick reply, signed by J.R. Morrison, Chinese Secretary of the Governor and son of Robert Morrison, on 22 February, acceding to the request.
. . . The site is one every way most eligible for the purposes of the Society. It is a hill having the harbor on the north, the valley of Wong-nachung on the east, the Queen's road on the south, and adjoining it on the west, the lot granted to the Medical Missionary Society, which is part of the same range. In process of time, it will probably be nearly midway between the eastern and the western extremities of the town, occupying a conspicuous yet retired position, elevated and healthy, and commanding a panoramic view of land and water.36 The plan for the building, which is commenced, is in outline as follows. It is to consist of a main body and two wings; the whole one story in height. The first is to be 63 feet in its front length, and 55 deep, divided into 6 rooms, each 20 feet by 25 feet. The wings are each to be 63 feet in length by 24.5 in breadth. The east wing is intended exclusively for a range of apartments for pupils, sufficiently large to accommodate 20 boys and two Chinese teachers, allowing a room for each person, where he will be furnished with a bed and a writing table, that are to be fixtures, and are included in the contract with the builder. The other wing is divided into two rooms, 21 by 25 feet in dimensions, besides a smaller one 10 by 21 feet, for a store-room. Of these larger rooms, one is designed eventually to hold the Society's library, and the other for the purpose of a recitation room.
The trustees have, in the first instance, contracted only for the erection of the two wings and a kitchen in the rear, which will serve as a tempo-rary, though plainly a bare accommodation for the school, and Mr. Brown's family. The room intended for the library and the recitation room will be occupied by the latter until such time as the body of the house can be erected, which should not be delayed. To avoid the expense of another year's rent to the Society, Mr. Brown is making arrangements to give up the lease of the house which he now occupies in Macao, at the expiration of the present year which will be the first of November next. The pupils of the school all express much eagerness to remove to Hongkong, and there is reason to believe that nearly all of them will be able to do so with the consent of their friends...
36. See photographic confirmation of the conspicuous yet retired position of at least the vicinity of this site in Evidence 19(a) below.
(c) XII (July 1843), 362 ff.; from Article IV. 'History of Hongkong: Given in Speci-mens of Composition by Pupils in the School of the Morrison Education Society.
Since the removal of this school to Hongkong, we have repeatedly had the pleasure of attending the examinations of the boys belonging to it. These examinations have been held weekly at six o'clock A.M., and at-tended by one or more of the trustees of the Society, who have usually been the examiners. On these occasions the boys have been closely interro-gated in their respective branches of study — geography, history, mathe-matics, &c. On the 4th instant, there were present, with two of the trustees, several military gentlemen, and among others some belonging to Lord Saltoun's staff, who were highly gratified with the exercises of the occa-sion. These exercises commenced with the reading of compositions, writ-ten by the boys; the several classes were then examined in their respective studies; after which, assisted by the Rev. Mr. Brown, their tutor, on a seraphine, they entertained their visitors with some charming melodies. The oldest pupils have been in the school less than four years, and have given only half their time to English studies, the other half being occupied with Chinese. The following are specimens of the compositions; they were seven in number, all written upon the same subject, designed to give an account of Hongkong. They were written as prize essays, some books having been offered to those who would produce the best compositions.
. # # ** * * (Fourth specimen)
This island is very ruff covered with hills and there are few level places except the valley of Wonnai tsung, Sokun po and little Hongkong. Although this island is so ruff yet there is a fine large harbor where ships of war and merchantships can be anchored in great numbers. On the north side of the island there is another small island named Kellets island on which a small fort was built mounting four guns about two years ago; this named is derived from a captain in the English navy.
In the year eighteen hundred and forty-one the English commenced to build houses in Hongkong. A few years ago there was not one place which is in China which belonged to the British. It was said that the mandarin had put poison into those streams of water which are in this island, because the last three or two years ago many Chinese who came here got sick and some of them died, therefore they thought so. I think this story was only exaggerated by the Chinese; but now it is more flourishing state, I think it will be better than Macao.
Sometime after captain Elliot had attacked Canton he was called back to England; and the queen then sent sir Henry Pottinger here to manage the Chinese affairs. When he had reached here he fought with the Chinese great many times and many places were taken.
There are several villages on this island, but I cannot tell all about them, as some of them I never saw, but now I am going to write about one of them which is called Wangna chung, it is on the north side of the island. It is surrounded by trees, and some of them produce dillecious fruits. I saw those people's houses every one of which I believe has an idol on top of it, for the heathen people think thus they can protect them from evil things. Their streets are very dirty and narrow.
There are two market places on the north side of this island, one of them is in Chungwan and the other in Hawan37 and both of them are near to the sea side. The first one is larger and cleaner than the latter one, and I think they are nicer than those markets in Macao, for they are almost always mudy.
About three years ago there was not one Chinese governor, who dared to hold a banquet with the English, as they were afraid of them. But now this year in the month of May there were two imperial commission-ers came to this island and visited the British governor and took dinner with him; and one evening they came to the Morrison Education Society school, and Mr. Brown played on the instrument and the boys sung several pieces, and the visitors seemed to be very much please to hear our teacher play and sing; but a few years ago I never heard they did such a thing, and I hope they will gradually become good friends and I that this country will improve.
(d) XII (August 1843), 440-41; from Article III, 'Religious and Charitable Institu-tions in Hong Kong: Churches, Chapels, Schools, Colleges, Hospitals, &c.'
The school of the Morrison Education Society is the only one of any note yet established in Hongkong. There are a few native schools — perhaps eight or ten, in various parts of the island, chiefly Victoria. To these schools — and all that may be established for native children — we would respectfully, but most earnestly, call the attention of the local government. A school committee will, erelong, be desirable. We will not dwell on this subject, for we have reason to know that it will not be overlooked.
(e) XII, pp. 625 ff.; from 'Report of the Morrison Education Society, December 1843, signed by S.R. Brown'.
It was my intention in arranging the studies for the boys last April, to select those best suited to their previous attainments, and to adhere closely
37. Chungwan was (and is) the Cantonese name for what is now known as 'Central'; Ha Wan referred to what is now known as Wanchai. The waterfront's position has, of course, been changed markedly since the 1840s by a series of reclamation schemes.
to these, till they should be finished. Accordingly, the eldest of the three classes into which the school is divided, took up the History of England by Keightly, Colburn's Intellectual Arithmetic, and English composition and penmanship. In the first study, viz., history, beginning with the invasion of Britain by the Romans, this class has proceeded by means of minute explanations and illustrations upon each lesson through two-thirds of the volume, which they use as a text-book, as far as the reign of Charles I. Sometimes they have been required, after studying the lessons by them-selves, to answer questions upon them; at others, to read their own ver-sion of the same portion of history written upon the slate. They might have gone on more rapidly, had they been less rigidly examined in every-thing relating to their lessons. It is not with these lads in any study as it is with those who speak English from their birth. A lesson in any book for the first two or three years after one of them enters the school is at once both a lesson on language and on the particular subject of which the book treats. Hence let it be arithmetic, geography, or history, or whatever else, the language must first be made intelligible, and the subject matter must be arrived at by this laborious process. We often find it necessary to spend more time on interpreting the textbook than in merely reciting the lesson. Not only every new word needs to be defined, but every new form of expression, and every particular idiom or combination of words; and it is not infrequently a half hour's task to unravel and expound a paragraph of moderate length so that the pupil shall clearly perceive, not merely what each part signifies, but how all the parts hinge upon one another, and are combined together so as to convey an unbroken train of thought. Unless this were done, the study would be of little avail to the scholar. The rate of progress through a book is not therefore the index of the pupil's general advancement, but only of that which he has made in the particular science taught in it, while his literary attainments are to be decided by other criteria.
If the examiners of a school like that of the Morrison Education Soci-ety bear these facts in mind, they are likely to come to a correct estimate of the pupils, and of the mode of instruction adopted. The boys of the first class have had as thorough a training after this manner as I could give to them, and by it have pretty well mastered the portion of history men-tioned above, with great interest to themselves, and have made in the meantime a steady advance in their knowledge of the English language. They have also finished the manual of Mental Arithmetic, and reviewed it, and have commenced the study of the Sequel by the same author, which is admirably adapted to lead the scholar forward by easy gradations, into the higher operations of arithmetic. In English composition, the above-mentioned historical exercise has been the most frequent, though the pupils have occasionally written upon themes of their own selection. Their penmanship too has been improved by the use of excellent copy books.
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
The second class, which has now been under tuition a year and a half, was likewise put to learning Colburn's First Lessons in Arithmetic, and have nearly gone through it; they have also been taught reading, writing, and spelling, and somewhat of composition.
The youngest, or third, class, who entered in April last, have been taught to speak English, and to read and spell it. They are now able to read easy sentences, embracing words of two or more syllables, with some degree of readiness and accuracy of pronunciation; to write pretty well with the pencil; and to understand and speak a little English .. .
During the whole of last year, the morals of the school-boys have appeared to me in general unexceptional. No instance of theft or falsehood in the upper two classes has come to my knowledge. I believe, indeed, that it may be said without the least exaggeration, that they are all habitually impressed with a feeling of contempt for the character of a liar. I have heard them, when some instance of falsehood or low cunning has oc-curred among the natives around them, say with a look of disgust, That is Chinese.'38
5. Official correspondence from Governors of Hong Kong to the Secretary of State for the Colonies.
The two despatches quoted below offer clear indications of the motives and policies of the respective Governors.
(a) Sir Henry Pottinger, first Governor of Hong Kong, to Lord Stanley, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 23 August 1843; in CO 129/2, pp. 251 ff.
. . . Your Lordship will see, that my full impression was, that by as-signing a Location for the Morrison Education Society, I had done every-thing that could be justly expected, or required, and I am still of this opinion; and cannot help considering the plans sketched in the letter now submitted39 to be altogether premature and uncalled for, to say nothing of the self evident political objections which exist to some of them.
It seems to me that, it will be quite time enough to talk of founding an Anglo-Chinese College, when the success of the Morrison Education Soci-ety shall have proved that it is likely to be useful, and even then it should in my ideas, be amalgamated with that Institution, as two Institutions of
38.
Did the missionaries in Hong Kong deliberately attempt to create the alienation of their pupils from their own culture, as has been claimed against missionaries in other parts of the world? See Carl Smith, op. cit., esp. pp. 16 ff. for one interesting discussion of this question.
39.
This refers to the application for Government assistance made by the members of the London Missionary Society on 18 August 1843. See Chapter 1, Evidence 3, above.
the sort in a small place like Hongkong — where I conceive it to be extremely doubtful whether any respectable Chinese will ever voluntarily avail themselves of the intended boon — will be totally superfluous.
(b) Sir John Davis, second Governor of Hong Kong, to Earl Grey, 16 March 1847; in CO 129/19, pp. 239^1 (Illus. 3.3).
6. Extracts of observations40 from two Inspectors of Schools.
Both Inspectors quoted here began their connections with Hong Kong as German Protestant missionaries. Lobscheid was the first Inspector of Government Schools. Ex-tracts from his 'Notices' appear as Evidence in Chapter 1. These additional quotations may provide as much information about Lobscheidfs own educational views as they do about the 'extent of Chinese education'. Eitel, the third Inspector, produced a general history of Hong Kong near the end of his career, entitled Europe in China. Quotations from this work may help to clarify his opinions, as well as offer interpretations about the vicissitudes of some of the early schools.
(a) A Few Notices on the Extent of Chinese Education and the Government Schools of Hong Kong..., by the Rev. W. Lobscheid, 1859.
The early studies pursued are those of Reading and Writing. Arithme-tic when taught, which is seldom done, and only at the special request of the pupil's parent, in view of his following a mercantile calling, consists merely of instructions in decimal computation on the Chinese counting board.
The books used are: — 'The Three Character Classic' and others of its class, rising to the Tour Books' and 'Five Classics'. The hours of instruction are said to be from sunrise to sunset, allowing an hour or more for breakfast at 8 and luncheon at 12.
The daily course of studies seems to be an unvaried succession of learning by rote and writing, and with advanced pupils, explanation. Each pupil learns and recites the lesson separately in a louder voice. There are no classes.
The fishing season is said to commence in the 9th, and end in the 3rd month, of the Chinese Year and the children of fishermen who form a large portion of the scholars, accompany their parents to sea; they are, therefore, under tuition during only half a year. The same custom seems to be followed by children of the Hakka, a race of which the population of these villages seems principally to consist.
40. The observations included here are clearly not direct reports based upon routine classroom inspections but 'observations' in the sense of views or considered opinions based on practical experience.
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173
When the pupils in a school, therefore, consist only of these classes, the teacher usually returns during the fishing season to his family on the mainland, not more than one or two of the schools being conducted by natives of Hong Kong.
... Six in ten of the present day [teachers] indulge either in the narcotic drug or in other dissipation, or they are so lazy and useless that the corruption of teachers has become proverbial.
.. . So long, therefore, as we have neither the men nor the means necessary for a complete change of the native system of education, or for the introduction into the schools of many of our useful branches of ele-mentary education, so long we must content ourselves with giving them a good knowledge of their native books, of Chinese grammar, of the Chris-tian Religion, and of the elements of the English language, and introduce new subjects as we get the books prepared and printed .. .
(b) E.J. Eitel, Europe in China: The History ofHong Kong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Kelly and Walsh, 1895, reprinted by Oxford University Press with an introduction by H.J. Lethbridge, 1983), pp. i-ii, 190-91,247, and 280-82.
... At first sight, indeed, the Colony of Hongkong appears like an odd conglomeration of fluctuating molecules of nationalities, whose succes-sive Governors seem to be but extraneous factors adventitiously regulat-ing or disturbing the heavings of this incongruous mass. But in reality the Hongkong community is solidarity one. Though an unbridged chasm does yawn in its midst, waiting for a Marcius Curtius to close it and meanwhile separating the social life of Europeans and Chinese, the people of Hongkong are inwardly bound together by a steadily developing com-munion of interests and responsibilities: the destiny of the one race is to rule and the fate of the other is to be ruled...
* * .‧ * * * *
During the year 1843, the religious and missionary agencies in the Colony bestirred themselves considerably in the general interest. Funds had been raised in 1842 for the erection of a Colonial Church, at first intended to be a sort of Union Church for both Churchmen and Noncon-formists. A Colonial Chaplain having been appointed in England at the request of the local Government, which disapproved the proposed union, services were conducted (since June, 1843) by Naval Chaplains in a tem-porary structure now called the 'Matshed Church/ and a building (the present St. John's Cathedral) was ordered to be commenced at Govern-ment expense and meanwhile dedicated to St. John (October 17, 1843), though building operations were delayed for several years as the Home Government postponed its sanction. It was, however, locally decided that the Colonial Chaplain should have sole charge of the Church. The Chap-lain, Rev. V. J. Stanton, preached his first sermon in the Colonial Matshed
Church on December 24th, 1843. The R. C. Prefect Apostolic, Fra Antonio Feliciani, consecrated the building erected by him at the corner of Welling-ton and Pottinger Streets as the R. C. Church of the Conception, on June 18th, 1843, when a Seminary for native clergy was opened in connection with it. The Mohammedans built (in 1843) a Mosque on the hill thence-forth called Mosque Gardens (Moloshan). The Chinese, who had already four temples from 75 to 100 years old, viz. one at Aplichow (dating from 1770 A.D.), one at Stanley, one in Spring Gardens (Taiwongkung), and one at Tunglowan (Causeway Bay), commenced building their City Temple (Sheng-wong-miu) on the site of the present Queen's College. The Ameri-can Baptist Mission, under Dr. Deane and Dr. Ball, started in 1843 a Chinese (Tiechiu) Church in the Upper Bazaar (Sheungwan Market). In addition to the establishment of the Morrsion Education Society's School on Morrison Hill (opened November 1, 1843), Dr. Legge of the London Missionary Society transferred to Hongkong the society's Malacca Col-lege, opening (November, 1843) a Preparatory School and a Seminary for the training of Chinese ministers, which was (in autumn 1844) located on the London Mission premises in Aberdeen and Staunton Streets as the Anglo-Chinese College (Ying-wa Shii-un). The Colonial Chaplain, Rev. V.
J. Stanton, immediately on his arrival (December 22,1843), made prepara-tions for the opening of a Training School for native ministers in connec-tion with the Church of England, on a site previously granted for the purpose by the Government (May 26,1843), under the name of St. Paul's College. In autumn 1843, the Protestant Missionaries of Hongkong (Legge, Medhurst, Milne, Bridgman and J. Stronach) commenced the work which eventually resulted in a new Chinese translation of the Bible, known as the Delegates Version, the best in style and diction (though not in literal accuracy) that has ever been produced to the present day...
In addition to be three Anglo-Chinese Schools (the Morrison Institution on Morrison Hill, the Anglo-Chinese College of the London Mission and St. Paul's College) started under the preceding administration, a number of smaller Schools was established under the fostering care of Sir J. Davis. An 'English Children's School' was opened, in 1845, by the Colonial Chaplain (V. Stanton), and in emulation of it the Propaganda Society started at once a similar School for Roman Catholic children, which was, however, discontinued in 1847. For the benefit of the Chinese population, which had at this period nine Confucian Schools at work, the Governor devised, early in 1847, in imitation of the English religious education grants then hotly discussed in parliament, a Government Grant-in-Aid Scheme to provide non-compulsory religious education in Chinese Schools under the direction of an Educational Committee (gazetted on December 6,1847), consisting of the Police magistrate, the Colonial Chaplain and the Registrar General. That Sir J. Davis was to some extent a religious visionary,
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
may be inferred from a dispatch (March 13,1847) in which he commended his scheme to the Colonial Office by saying that, Tf these Schools were eventually placed in charge of native Christian teachers, bred up by the Protestant Missionaries, it would afford the most rational prospect of converting the native population of the Island.' Sancta simplicitasl
*******
.. . It appeared that a fund of ￡18,000 had been raised in England for the endowment of a Hongkong bishopric, that an annual grant of ￡6,000 from the Colonial Bishoprics' Fund had been promised by the Bishop of London, and that an additional sum of ￡2,000 was available for the special purposes of St. Paul's College. The latter institution was to be (like Dr. Legge's Anglo-Chinese College) a school for the training of Chinese ministers, and the Bishop was appointed its warden under statutes approved (October 15,1849) by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The College received later on also a small Parliamentary grant to train interpreters for the public service.
With the arrival (March 20,1850) of the Bishop, G. Smith, who conse-crated the new cathedral in September, 1850, a period of increased mis-sionary and educational activity set in, for Bishop Smith possessed stimu-lating energy and looked upon the whole of China, as well as Hongkong, as his diocese. The Jewish Colony at Kaifungfoo (in North-China) received a share of the Bishop's attention, a curious testimony of which is exhibited in the City Hall Library in the shape of a portion of the Hebrew Penta-teuch recovered from Kaifungfoo. The Taiping rebellion and the mission-ary politics connected with it occupied much of the Bishop's time. For the benefit of seamen passing through Hongkong, the lorcha Anne was con-verted into a floating Bethel in charge of a seamen's chaplain (Mr. Holder-mann). The Government Grant-in-Aid Schools were soon brought under the supervision of the Bishop as chairman of the Educational Committee, and worked as feeders of St. Paul's College. The latter was taught (until 1849) by Mr. J. Summers (afterwards Professor of Chinese Literature at King's College, London) and subsequently by the Bishop himself and his chaplains. Though the College produced not a single native minister, nor any official interpreter, many of the best educated native residents of the Colony received their training there. The same may be said of Dr. Legge's Anglo-Chinese College which also failed to produce any native preacher or teacher but trained some eminent English-speaking Chinese. While Bishop Smith was great in religious politics, Dr. Legge made himself a European reputation as the translator of the Chinese classics. On the other hand, some of the scholars of the Morrison Institution, of the Anglo-Chinese College and of St. Paul's College, gained at different times an unenviable notoriety in Police Court cases. Hence the public drew the inference that, in the case of Chinese youths, an English education, even when conducted on a religious basis, fails to effect any moral reform, and rather tends to draw out the vicious elements inherent in the Chinese character. The mercantile community, which had hitherto munificently supported missionary institutions, commenced about this time to with-draw their sympathies form the missionary cause altogether. The Morri-son Education Society's School on Morrison Hill had to be closed, in spring 1849, for want of public support. Mr. Stanton's English Children's School, under Mr. Drake, also collapsed in 1849 and the attempt made by Miss Mitchell to revive it resulted, in 1853, in complete failure. Dr Gutzlaffs Chinese Union of native colporteurs, which had for many years made a greater stir in Europe than in China, ended in October 1849, during the temporary absence of Dr. Giitzlaff, in a miserable fiasco. The London Mission Hospital for Chinese, having for some years past lost its hold on public sympathy, was closed in October, 1850. The London Missionary Society opened, however, a chapel in Queen's Road (May, 1851) where out-patients were occasionally attended to. As the mercantile public be-came severe critics of the labours of the missionaries, the latter now came to look upon Hongkong as 'a stumbling-block to the progress of Christi-anity and civilization in China.' The Roman Catholic Missions, seeking on the quiet the support of Government rather than of the public, continued the even tenor of their way. They started several small schools which gave to Portuguese youths an elementary English education and thus com-menced the work which eventually filled commercial and Government offices with Portuguese clerks. The Chinese population, who were still in the habit of sending their sons to be educated outside the Colony, in Canton or in their respective native villages, cared little for local educa-tion. Public spirit among the Chinese vented itself in guild meetings, pro-cessions and temple-committees. Among the latter, the Committee of the Man-moo temple (rebuilt and enlarged in May, 1851) now rose into emi-nence as a sort of unrecognized and unofficial local-government board (principally made up by Nampak-hong or export merchants). This Com-mittee secretly controlled native affairs, acted as commercial arbitrators, arranged for the due reception of mandarins passing through the Colony, negotiated the sale of official titles, and formed an unofficial link between the Chinese residents of Hongkong and the Canton Authorities.
7. Comments by two leading missionaries.
The first extract is taken from a letter written in 1847 by the Rev. George Smith, who had previously visited China on behalf of the Church Missionary Society to report on prospects for the mission there. A few years later, he was to become the first Anglican Bishop of Hong Kong. James Legge, about whom it was later said that he ruled the Board of Education 'with the ease and grace of a born bishop',*1 made the reminiscences and remarks
41. A comment by Eitel, in his Europe in China (Kelly and Walsh, 1895), p. 392.
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quoted below in a talk which he gave shortly before leaving Hong Kong, about thirty years later than the events he is describing. During this talk he also asserted that he was responsible for suggesting the 'Cadet' scheme.*1
(a) Letter from the Rev. George Smith to Earl Grey, Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated Church Missionary House, 16 January 1847, in CO 129/22, pp. 269-70.
.. . The second measure which I venture to propose refers to the de-sirability of Christian Schools established and supported by Government for the intellectual, moral and religious education of Chinese youths. It might at first view appear desirable that educational measures might be undertaken by some of the Missionary Societies in existence, assisted by pecuniary grants from the Colonial Legislature of Hongkong. Such a plan would, I apprehend, be open to objections and many practical inconven-iences. Missionary societies will always have a primary, if not exclusive reference to the object of raising up a body of Native Teachers and Evan-gelists who may, by the Divine Blessing, become the instructors of their fellow countrymen.
On the other hand, the Government must look on the Natives edu-cated by their funds, as the nucleus of a body of Native Interpreters, Writers and subordinate officers. In China, where the language is so difficult, and where Interpreters are consequently so much in request, the demand will for a long time considerably exceed the supply: and in scholastic Institutions under a mixed control there must arise apparent collisions of interests and objects, and various grounds for mutual dissat-isfaction.
The case of the Morrison Education School at Hongkong may be cited in some respects as a instance in point. The practical measure I beg leave to suggest to your Lordship is the
42. This was a method of recruiting higher quality administrative officers for the Hong Kong civil service from England and preparing them for their future responsibilities partly through a course in Cantonese. A prototype of the arrangements was devised by Sir John Bowring in 1854 but the full scheme was introduced by Sir Hercules Robinson on 23 March 1861, and the first three recruits, C C Smith, W.M. Deane and M.S. Tonnochy, were appointed on 3 April 1862. As Lethbridge points out, 'the first three [Cadets], who pio-neered the scheme, were given quarters in the Central School House during their proba-tionary period and learned their Chinese, which was Cantonese, from teachers recruited locally by Government. In 1872, Sir Arthur Kennedy established a Board of Examiners, charged with the duty of examining government officers drawing a Chinese teacher's allowance and with issuing certificates of proficiency to European and Indian police con-stables; but before that date cadets had been examined by an ad hoc committee' (H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 36). It may be interesting to note Eitel first established a reputation with the Government through his work examining civil servants tor their knowledge of Chinese.
establishment of an efficient educational Institution for the benefit of the Chinese at Hongkong, in which a European Principal of Christian zeal and ability might dispense the benefits of an education in the literature, science, and religion of the West. By such a measure not only would an important Christian duty and responsibility be discharged, but also im-portant and obvious advantages of a secular kind would be secured. From among the recipients of this bounty of a Christian Government the Colo-nial Executive might look with justice for a reinforcement of Native Inter-preters; who by the efficiency gained from a European education, and by the principles of moral integrity instilled during the progress of Christian instruction, might be placed in a position to repay the debt of gratitude in some subordinate official trust, and might also effect much towards leav-ening with the influence of Christian loyalty the whole mass of Native Society.
The management of such an Institution might be undertaken by the ecclesiastical representatives of the Church of England in the Colony under the visitorial control of the Governor43...
(b) James Legge, 'The Colony of Hong Kong7, lecture in the City Hall, Hong Kong, 5 November 1872; reprinted from The China Review III (1874), 163-76, in the Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 11,172-93.
... In the month of May, 1843,1 reached Macao, and, a few days after, came over with my family to this place ...
... Many important measures were carried through in his [Sir Hercu-les Robinson, Governor of Hong Kong, 1859-65] time. In 1860, the Chinese schools, supported by Government throughout the island, were entirely rearranged, and I may claim to myself the merit of having pressed on successive governors the adoption of the present system, which Sir Hercu-les was the first to take up heartily, and give effect to. We are very fortunate in obtaining such a master to inaugurate it, and carry it out with untiring devotion, as Mr. Stewart. He has been doing a great work of education with hundreds of pupils, the benefits of which will be increas-ingly felt by the Colony and by China itself.44
43.
Though actually writing this letter from Church Missionary House, George Smith is here clearly attempting to distinguish between the role of the Anglican Church and the activities of missionaries in such colonies as Hong Kong. The Church of England, as the Established Church, assumed a special connection with the Government. The quite general existence of this attitude may help to explain the earlier alacrity with which the Colonial Chaplain, the Rev. V. Stanton, had taken up the Governor's suggestion about the need to provide schooling for the children of 'inferior Europeans'. It may also help to explain the tendency, already noted, of many Anglican leaders to argue in favour of separate educa-tional provision for the different races. See also Evidence 10 below.
44.
Here, Legge, appears to be offering Stewart his blessing at a time when the controversy
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
8. Extracts from local newspapers.
Another collection of snippets from the local press focuses mainly on opinion, though
the advertisement also indicates the growing interest by Chinese and Europeans in the
opportunities for interpreters at this time.
(a) The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette, 22 February 1845.
In our advertising columns there appears a notice, calling a meeting of the inhabitants, to make arrangements for giving Concerts in Hongkong. We fear that, however laudable the intention — and however zealous the parties may be, with whom the idea originated — in the present state of the colony it will not succeed so well as might be desired. We doubt, whether among the limited number of the European inhabitants, there is sufficient musical talent to make such an affair creditable — and if there is talent, it is so cut up by the different sections into which society has formed itself that a union is all but hopeless. We fear that at present, the harmony of sweet sounds must be confined to the precincts of the draw-ing room or the salon; but though we despair of any public musical assembly, we will be pleased, should our fears or doubts, prove ground-less.
(b) The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette, Saturday, 26 August 1848, p. 281.
. . . Pensions, Schools, Hospitals, and a Poor House cost Singapore ￡3,257 per annum; with all our lavish extravagance, the only [Govern-ment] money spent on educational or benevolent institutions or for chari-table purposes is ￡7 10s per annum, which figures in the Estimates as 'Maintenance of an Orphan'. It is true we have Hospitals and Schools — supported by public contributions; there are few places — if any — where so much money is subscribed for benevolent and philanthropic purposes as in Hong Kong. A European population of 400 support a Colonial School, (set a-going by the worthy Chaplain, and for a long time kept up at his own expense), a Hospital for sick strangers of all countries, a Chinese educational Institution, also contributing to a Medical Missionary Institu-tion.
(c) Advertisement in Dixon's Hong Kong Recorder, three times a week from 20 July to 15 August 1853.
WANTED
BY a CHINESE, who has received a thorough English Education, a Situ-
between secular and religious education was at its height. It might be noted that, in the following year, 1873, Stewart introduced his Grant Code, branded by many as secularist.
ation as Clerk or Interpreter. He speaks fluently the Mandarin, Canton and
Fukien Dialects, and has also a knowledge of Malay.
(d) China Mail, No. 1050,30 March 1865, p. 50.
There are great difficulties in the path of education in this Colony; but the greatest of all is the application of English rules and measures, and the endeavour to carry them out by gentlemen who know less of the natives and their language and literature than they do of India and of Sanskrit. The Board of Education has always consisted of excellent men, most of whom were anxious to promote the welfare of the natives; but their ignorance of the natives and their language made them naturally disin-clined to visit the schools, and being much occupied during office hours, when the schools should be visited, it is natural that they remained utter strangers to the schools and their wants, and knew nothing of their exis-tence but on paper.
The only gentleman acquainted with the language, and one who for the space of four years has been a member of the Board, is Dr. Legge. But the public need not be told that his duties in other departments are so multifarious as to exclude any idea of his visiting the schools, so as to recognize the pupils, which alone will enable a member of the Board to exercise a wholesome control over the teachers. There are schools almost within the precincts of Victoria which are visited but once a year, even by Dr. Legge. Should any one of the other members of the Board pass along and just peep in, he is not only unable to do more than record his name, but should he ask a pupil about his lesson, the teacher would be sure to deceive him and allow his pupils to speak perfect nonsense. A visit of that nature, when made officially, does more harm than good. The Inspector of Government Schools, who should be constantly moving among the people in order to acquaint himself with their manners, customs, feelings and inclination, has been made master of as large an establishment as would, even in England, demand his whole talent and energies, without his having to acquire one of the most difficult tongues in the world. If we believe the report of the Chairman of the Board, and take it for granted that excellent teachers are difficult to be got, why then are no measures taken to establish a better and more efficient agency for the supervision of these bad or indifferent hirelings? ...
9. 'Report on Government Schools for 1851, dated December 24,1851', from the Blue Book 1851, in CO 129/39, p. 127.
By the end of 1851, the Education Committee had dwindled to a membership of two
enthusiastic but overworked amateurs. Their willingness to intervene over matters of
curriculum and educational technology is interesting, as is their implicit suggestion that
the Government should be responsible for the erection of suitable school houses and the more effectual supervision of the schools.
.. . We have used our discretion in conformity with the plan recom-mended in deducting from the salary of the teachers, where we deemed it necessary, a certain sum for each scholar less than 30 that the school has contained; by this means some money has been saved and partly ex-pended on the purchase of books and maps; a good map of China having the places noted in the Chinese character has been furnished to each school, and a work on Astronomy has been introduced (we are afraid, however, with very little benefit), to be followed by one on geography and another elementary work on physics.
We should expect much more benefit from these schools if they were placed under more effectual supervision than we are able to afford, and if suitable schoolhouses were erected by Government, the present school-rooms hired by the teachers being very confined and very dirty.
Signed C.B. Hillier,
E.P.R. Moncrieff, LL.D. Committee for Superintending Chinese Schools
10. George Smith, A Narrative of an Exploratory Visit to Each of the Consular Cities of
China (reprinted from the 1847 edition by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Co., 1972), pp. 50S-20.
George Smith's suggestion that, instead of supporting missionary educational endeav-ours in Hong Kong generally, the Government should rely specifically on the Established Church of England for the training of much-needed interpreters and translators, appears as Evidence 7(a) in this chapter. Below are extracts from Smith's Narrative, based on his visits to the consular cities and treaty ports of China in 1844,1845 and 1846, an extended excursion intended to 'explore the ground, and to prepare the way for other Missionaries of the Church of England, by collecting statistical facts, by recording general observations, and by furnishing detailed data for rightly estimating the moral, social and political condition of that peculiar nation'. As will be seen, Smith was not backward in recording his observations and particularly his judgement about the disadvantages of Hong Kong as a field for C.M.S. endeavours. His opinions about the calibre of the early Hong Kong population, Chinese and European, are similar to those of Montgomery Martin, the disaffected Colonial Treasurer. As mentioned above, Smith was soon to become the first Anglican Bishop of 'Victoria and South China'.
The moral and social character of the Chinese population at Hong Kong
presents a disadvantage of a very different kind. While in the northern cities on the mainland of China daily intercourse may be held without restraint with the more respectable classes of native society, and a for-eigner everywhere meets an intelligent and friendly population; at Hong Kong, on the other hand, Missionaries may labour for years without being brought into personal communication with any Chinese, except such as are, generally speaking, of the lowest character, and unlikely to exert a moral influence on their fellow countrymen. The lowest dregs of native society flock to the British Settlement, in the hope of gain or plunder. Although a few of the better class of shopkeepers are beginning to settle in the colony, the great majority of the new comers are of the lowest condi-tion and character. The principal part of the Chinese population in the town consists of servants, coolies, stone-cutters, and masons engaged in temporary works. About one-third of the population lives in boats on the water. The colony has been for some time also the resort of pirates and thieves, so protected by secret compact as to defy the ordinary regulations of police for detection or prevention. In short, there are but faint prospects at present of any other than either a migratory or a predatory race being attracted to Hong Kong, who, when their hopes of gain or pilfering van-ish, without hesitation or difficulty remove elsewhere ...
The Chinese who come to Hong Kong are generally unmarried men, or leave their wives and families on the mainland, returning with their savings to their homes after a few months' labour...
Another difficulty, which impresses on Hong Kong a peculiar ineligi-bility as a Missionary Station, is the great diversity of dialects, which pre-vails among its limited population of 19,000 Chinese, and which is neces-sarily produced by the heterogeneous elements of which it is composed. There are the three principal dialects in the island, the speaker of one of which would be unintelligible to the speaker of another. Under these there are other subdivisions of the local dialect, more or less distinct, but pre-senting some features of resemblance ... Not only would a Missionary be hindered in his usefulness by the perplexing variety of dialects, but it would be next to impossible for a foreign student of ordinary talent, who had not previously studied the language in some other part, ever to attain a fluent and correct punctuation of any dialect in Hong Kong.
Two other disadvantages to Hong Kong, however, are the frequent spectacle of European irreligion, and the invidious regulations of police, both of which are likely to exert an unfavourable influence on the future evangelization of the Chinese. It is with unfeigned regret and reluctance that the author states, that scenes frequently occur in the public streets, and in the interior of houses, which are calculated to place the countrymen of Missionaries in an unfavourable aspect before the native mind.45 The opinion is sincerely held and deliberately expressed, that unless present tendencies are happily obviated, the settlement is more likely to prove a detriment than a blessing ...
45. A quite early example of a recognition of the importance of the concept of 'face'.
The Chinese are also treated as a degraded race of people. They are not permitted to go out into the public streets after a certain hour in the evening, without a lantern and a written note from their European em-ployer, to secure them from the danger of apprehension and imprison-ment till the morning. According to a local gazette, the official organ of the Government, the most abandoned classes of Chinese, who form a subject of odious traffic to Chinese speculators, were, at least for a time, under the regular superintendence of local officers, and contributed each a monthly sum as payment toward the expenses of this control...
The most useful Missionary Institution at Hong Kong is the Morrison Education Society's School, which was originated a few years ago by a few benevolent individuals... The school contains about thirty pupils of ages varying from eight to nineteen years; and has been from the commence-ment under the able superintendence of an American Missionary, the Rev.
S.R. Brown, who, with his excellent wife, has raised the institution to a state of efficiency unequalled by any other similar institution in China. The pupils are divided into four classes, two of which are instructed by an assistant master. The mornings are devoted to English studies; and the afternoons are spent in Chinese studies with a native teacher. The course of study embraces the usual branches of a thorough English education; viz. reading, spelling, writing, composition, arithmetic, geography, his-tory, algebra, and geometry. The author has, on different occasions, heard the senior pupils demonstrate some of the most difficult propositions in Euclid with the utmost precision, amid frequent cross-questioning. It was a pleasing sight to mingle in the evening devotions of the Missionary family, and to behold the deep and affectionate attention with which this interesting body of youths listened to the Scripture expositions of their preceptor, so well seconded by the tender kindness and moral influence of his wife. It was no less pleasant than affecting to listen to the hymns, in which they were taught to sing the praises of the Redeemer of mankind...
.. . The only remaining Missionary institution is a Chinese school be-longing to the London Missionary Society, and formerly conducted at Malacca under the title of the 'Anglo-Chinese College'. Here a few boys are educated by the Rev. Dr. Legge, an able Missionary of the same Society; his wife also conducting a school for Chinese girls...
... [The missionaries'] Educational plans for the benefit of the Chinese ought to have a primary, if not exclusive reference to the object of raising a native Christian ministry. Instruction of Chinese youths must necessarily be conveyed either in Chinese or in English. Education in their own language they can receive at little expense, and with greater advantage, in their own schools. Indiscriminate instruction in the English language will only place native youths in circumstances of increased temptation, quali-fying them for situations as interpreters of the lowest class, and leading them, by the hopes of high wages, to abandon the less alluring prospects of quiet connexion with the Missionaries. To devote the time and labour of Missionaries, at least on their first arrival, to the object of imparting an indiscriminate English education to Chinese youths, who neither are the sons of Christian converts, nor evince any signs of a belief in Christianity, is to incapacitate the individual Missionaries from acquiring the language, and to fritter away the energies of the Mission generally on a work of doubtful expediency, which has no necessary connexion with the Mis-sionary enterprise. Such secular education does not properly fall within the province of a Missionary Society ...
11. A Government notification, 1858.
This appeared in the Hong Kong Government Gazette, Vol. 4,1858-59, p. 104. It provides evidence of the objectives of the Education Committee and the additional energy provided (a) by the appointment of the first Inspector of Schools, William Lobscheid and (b) the interest shown in education by the Governor, Sir John Bowring. It might be noted that Eitel inferred the beginning of a fee-system in Government schools from this Notice (Eitel, op. cit., p. 338); while the anonymous author of Dates and Events connected with the History of Education in Hong Kong seems mistakenly to assume from this Notice that 1857 marks the effective beginning of the 'first period' of Hong Kong's history of education
(p. 2). The Notice is more likely to be significant for its confirmation of the Government's belated acceptance of the need to build its own school-houses.
NOTICE
GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS
Parents and Guardians are hereby informed that Schools for gratui-tous instruction have been established by the Government of Hong Kong within the City of Victoria and throughout the Island, wherein the Chi-nese Elementary Books, their Classics, Geography, &c, and the English Language, are taught by competent Native Teachers.
As the Government provide School-rooms and pay the Teachers' Salaries, no School Fee can be demanded; but a Sum not exceeding 25 cash per Month, in lieu of Tea, will be expected from each Pupil.
Any Parent or Guardian finding the Teachers neglect their duty, by fretting away the time devoted to the instruction of the Pupils, or by any want of consideration to the aptitude of each Scholar, or by refusing to admit them, without sufficient cause, to the advantage of any specified study are earnestly requested to give immediate information of the same either to the Bishop of Victoria at St. Paul's College, or to the Rev. J. Chalmers at the London Mission House, or to J. Scarth, Esquire, J.P., Queen's Road (Chung-wan), or the Rev. W. Lobscheid, on Hospital Hill (Wan-haiy).
Upon an investigation into any of the above grounds of complaint, or into any other irregularities resulting into an unfavourable finding by the Members of the Educational Committee, any Teacher found wanting in any specified or other just requirement, shall be subjected to removal from his School.
Any Parent or Guardian acquainted with able Teachers are particu-larly requested to communicate their names and pretensions in the event of any vacancy, as such recommendations would have due weight in the choice of a Candidate.
Petitions for the establishment of New Schools may also be sent to the
before-named Gentlemen.
The hours of Tuition are, —
from 6 to 8 o'clock A.M.
do. 9 to 12 do. do.
do. lto past 4 P.M.
— during which time the Teachers are not permitted to leave their Schools or to receive Visitors without special permission previously granted.
JOHNSCARTH,J.P. Member of the Committee Superintending Chinese Schools
W. LOBSCHEID, Inspector Government Schools.
Victoria, Hong Kong, November 23,1858.
12. 'The New System prepared by the Rev. Dr. Legge', Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1861, pp. 106-107.
jUmes Legge's 'Scheme' was so important in the shaping of the early Government School system that it merits being quoted in full. It might be noted that Legge, then a leading member of the first Board of Education, waited for (or manoeuvred) the resignation of Lobscheid before formally presenting his re-organization plan. Readers may wish to consider how Legge viewed the role and importance of English language teaching.
The Inspector of the Government Schools having resigned his situ-ation, we shall probably be requested by His Excellency, the Governor, to recommend some other gentleman to fill the vacant office, and if a compe-tent person shall not immediately be met with, a more careful supervision of the Schools will devolve upon ourselves. The present seems a favour-able opportunity for me to solicit your attention to some thoughts con-cerning the management of the Schools, and the general promotion of education in this Colony under the auspices of the Government, which have been revolved by me for many years; and if you concur in the propriety and advisability of my views, I would beg that they may be laid before His Excellency, with the favourable recommendation of the Board.
The appointment of a European Inspector was a great improvement on the system by which the schools were previously conducted, and we owe much to Mr. Lobscheid for the increased efficiency of the old Schools under his management, and for the establishment of many new ones. Having been resident in the Colony since 1843,1 have rejoiced to witness how attention to the important business of education has grown, in some proportionable degree, with its general growth and prosperity.
But great results cannot be realized under the present system. There are about twenty schools. The pupils are mostly the children of the poor, whose attendance is irregular, and cannot be calculated upon for a series of years. The teachers are in general men of no particular qualifications for their work. The teachers of English are young men whose own knowledge of our language is only rudimentary. We cannot expect that he will spend more than two or three hours in each School in the course of every month.
The plan which I would recommend instead of this is the following:
First, that there be erected a building in Victoria, in which the Schools now maintained in T'ai-ping-shan, the Upper and Central Bazaars, Webster's Crescent, and near the Mosque, shall be concentrated in differ-ent rooms.
Second, that in connection with this building there be provided a residence for a European Master, who shall form and conduct English classes; and that only in the Schools concentrated there shall English be taught.
Third, that this European Master, aided by a Board of Education, constituted like the present, or modified as circumstances may render desirable, exercises superintendence over the other Schools in Aberdeen and the villages over the Island.
This plan would retain all the advantages of the present system of inspection and might be expected to produce real and definite results, which cannot now be looked for.
In the first place, the Government would have an officer, himself actively engaged in the work of education.
In the second place, the English education carried on under the Mas-ter's eye would be more efficient than it is now, and he would be able to collect into his own classes the pupils whose progress and interest in their studies gave promise of their making real attainments.
In the third place, many young Chinese, well-educated in schools in China, and connected with Chinese firms and families in the Colony, would be found to enter his English classes.
In the fourth place, an impulse would be given to the Chinese educa-tion carried on in the concentrated Schools. The teachers under the imme-diate and daily observation of their superintendent might be expected to be diligent and earnest to further the progress of their pupils. And an
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
187
influence would go from their schools, which would tell upon those in the
villages.
There would be an outlay for the building which this plan proposes, but the permanent expenditure for such a system would not be very much larger than that of the present. And fees should be charged from pupils attending the English classes, which did not enter from the government schools. My own opinion is that these would amount to no inconsiderable sum.
This plan makes the teaching of English a more prominent part of the Education in Government Schools than it has hitherto been. But I beg to submit to you that it ought to be so. It ought to be so in this Colony where the administration of justice is conducted in the English language, and according to English law. It ought to be so, that an influence may go forth from the Island, which shall be widely felt in China enlightening and benefiting many of its people.
I beg to submit the above views to your consideration. I may repeat that they have not occurred to me in connection with Mr. Lobscheid's resignation of his office as Inspector of Government Schools. I had the honour of mentioning them to Sir John Davis, when the Government first began to extend its patronage to the education of the Chinese, and I would hope that you may accord to them your sanction and recommend them to the adoption of the present Governor, in the new greater maturity of the Colony.
13. Ng Lun Ngai-ha, Interactions of East and West: Development of Public Education in Early Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1984), pp. 40-41.
Thefolloxving brief extract from an important secondary source about the development
ofeducation in early Hong Kong offers an interesting interpretation of the role of the Board
of Education and of the motivation of James Legge.
The Board was a mid-way stage between the Education Committee and a government Department of Education in that while its chairman was still the Bishop, a high Government official and two prominent citi-zens had been added. But the man who steered the Board and paved the way for the establishment of the government Department of Education was James Legge. Like the missionaries of the Anglican and the Catholic churches, Legge, during the early years of his career in Hong Kong, had been anxious to use schools for the purpose of making converts to Christi-anity. But, partly due to the failure of the missionary schools in producing local clergy, and partly due to his gradual understanding of the character of the Chinese, he began to give up the policy of propagating 'Christianity through letters'. He was particularly opposed to the church's control over public education and the introduction of what amounted to compulsory
Bible reading in the government schools. As an educationist he advocated education for its own sake, and, as a sinologue, he held in high esteem Chinese thought and philosophy contained in the classics, and he did not see the necessity of replacing Confucianism by Christianity. In these re-spects, the view and attitude of Legge could well be compared with those of the British Orientalists in India, as both shared a healthy appreciation of the indigenous culture. Yet Legge's idea of educational reform was pri-marily concerned with the effective teaching of English as he saw the commercial value of knowledge of English to the Chinese. In this sense, he was also a pragmatist.46
14. Carl T. Smith, Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen, and the Church in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 207-208.
Carl Smithrs biographically detailed work offers interesting insights into the develop-
ment of a Chinese and Eurasian elite in nineteenth century Hong Kong. In the following
extract, he concentrates upon the missionary initiatives for female education and the
negative, occasionally violent reactions that these were capable of arousing. See in this
context the stoning of Miss Eaton's sedan chair (reported in Evidence 15).
The Church was a pioneer in the education of females. In the early period, the missionary wife would sometimes care for orphans or un-wanted girls, and at a proper age form them into a small class. Otherwise, it was difficult to induce parents to send their girls to school as they could be more useful at home caring for the younger children or performing household tasks. When one of the first agents of the Church Missionary Society opened a girls' school in Hong Kong, he offered the inducement of a subsidy, though the experiment was soon abandoned.
The first school for girls supported by the Government was organized at Stanley and was taught by a convert of the Anglican Church. It was so successful that the leaders of the Chinese community in Hong Kong requested that the teacher be transferred and placed in charge of a similar school to be opened there.
An interesting project was organized by the wife of the first Bishop of Victoria, Mrs. Smith. She enlisted the aid of interested women in the education of Chinese girls of the better class. They formed a committee and appealed to the Society for the Promotion of Female Education in the East to send teachers out from England. The new school was called the Diocesan Female Training Institute, and the girls were given instruction in English. This, however, was found to be a mistake, as it made the young
46. It is also possible that both Legge and Stewart were attracted to the ideas of such Utilitarians as John Stuart Mill, ideas which were influential amongst reformers in England at that time.
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
189
girls too attractive to that section of the male European community who were looking for local household companions with whom they could communicate in English.47 After several of the students had entered into such irregular positions, the language of instruction was largely confined to Chinese.
One of the purposes of the Diocesan Female Training Institute was to train teachers and provide suitably educated marriage partners for the young male converts of St. Paul's College. This purpose was fulfilled by a number of pupils of the Institute.48
15. From the 'Minute Books of the Committee for the Diocesan Native Female Training School', reproduced in Rev. W.T. Featherstone, The Diocesan Boys
School and Orphanage, Hongkong: The History and Records 1869-1929 (1930), pp.
92 ff.
Two highly esteemed schools in Hong Kong can today claim the Diocesan Native Female Training School as their ancestor-institution. Obviously, these include the present Diocesan Girls' School. The Native Female Training School was replaced in 1870 by the Diocesan Home and Orphanage, so that the other institution with a claim to successor-status is the Diocesan Boys' School. The Native Female Training School Committee's Minute Books offer insight into personalities, attitudes and conditions at the time. Mrs Irwin, wife of the prominent Anglican missionary, the Rev. Dr J.J. Irwin, who acted as Chairman of the Committee in 1865, was a regular member of the Committee in the first few years of its life. Miss Mary Winefred Eaton was the headmistress of the Native Female Training School, who later married E.J. Eitel. Miss Sophia Harriet Baxter, like Miss Eaton, originally came out to Hong Kong in response to an appeal for help in the 'Promotion of Female Education in the East' by Mrs Smith, wife of the Anglican Bishop. Once in Hong Kong, she energetically set about establishing a string of 'Baxter schools', which catered especially for Chinese and Eurasian girls. Mrs. Ainsworth was a teacher at the first Baxter School. Readers may wish to examine the following extracts for their assumptions about basic objectives, teaching methods, language and the relationship between staff and school committee.
47.
For confirmation of this view from primary sources, see Chapter 4, Evidence 1(c) and 10.
48.
As the following quotation illustrates, a similar purpose was recognized in Roman Catholic institutions. The young girls brought up at the Asile of the Sainte Enfance [part of the French Convent], get married generally at about the age of 20.
This question of marriage is negociated [sic] by the missionary Father in charge of the district in which the suitor lives. It is therefore the Father who first writes to the Asile, to find out if any young girl desires to be found a home.
The young man must be from 20 to 30 years of age not more, must be honest, of good character, and a good Christian. He must also have a situation which will allow him to provide amply for himself and family/ (Asile de la Sainte Enfance... Monography, p. 22)
July 1st, 1863. — ... Extract from a letter from Mrs. Irwin read at the meeting.
— Advice as regards Instruction.
Miss Eaton seems to have grave doubts as to the utility of teaching the girl pupils English and does not feel that their progress justifies the time spent over it. She does not find they understand her sufficiently to receive lessons in Grammar or Geography. My opinion is, that the study of English must exercise and open the mind to an extent which the learning of Chinese, in the manner in which it is universally taught, never could do, and the girls thus instructed are more likely to prove intelligent and helpful wives to educated boys. At the same time I do not think their progress would be accelerated by teaching them strings of hard names that they do not understand. What I should propose would be that we (the Committee) should hold a little private examination, say in three months' time, and that then we should require the children to name, in English, the principal objects in the room, attaching some quality to each, as The Table is hard/ They might also describe simple actions that they can themselves perform, and thus begin to form simple sentences with understanding; the elder girls could write their exercises on their slates and thus practise spelling and this, with reading, writing and perhaps a little simple mental Arithmetic, would in my opinion be sufficient to require of them for the present. The chief importance should be laid on the cultivation of good principles and neat and cleanly habits. This is what occurs to me; please make what use you like of it.
I think it would be a relief to Miss Eaton to know that the Committee are not looking for very great things, though, after all, much must and should be left to her own discretion.
December 8th, 1864: — .. . Miss Eaton, having previous to this meeting been attacked by Chinamen on her way to the School, and having written a note to the Secretary begging that her holiday might at once be given and saying that she could not remain longer at the School, this meeting was called to consider whether Miss Eaton's holidays should be given and what should be arranged for the protection of the School. It was agreed that Miss Eaton should be granted her holiday at once, she being so unwell from the effects of the late fright; but that the girls should not go away at present. Miss Baxter promised to send Mrs. Ainsworth from her School for the present. A letter was written to the Governor begging from him protection for the School. It was agreed to subscribe a sum of money to be presented from the Committee to Miss Eaton's chair-bearers for their good behaviour on the night of the attack.
December 8th and 17th, 1864: — Two meetings were called to discuss the action of Miss Eaton, who, on being granted her own holiday, dismissed the pupils on her own initiative, thereby calling down the anger of the
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
191
Committee on her head and her own dismissal. Her case was taken up by the Rev. Dr. Irwin, who should have been consulted about her dismissal. Finally, she was taken back, after having written a letter of apology to the Committee. Several members of the Committee resigned.49
16. Francis Wong Hoy Kee and Gwee Yee Hean, Perspectives: The Development of Education in Malaysia and Singapore (Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann, 1972), p. 11.
The following two brief extracts are presented to offer opportunities for comparison
between Hong Kong and another small colony, as well as between the attitudes of adminis-
trators in Hong Kong and the United Kingdom.
In his 'Address to the Public on behalf of a School to be established in Prince Edward Island' on 6 February, 1819, Hutchins50 outlined his scheme for, and the advantage of, such a project:
First, that the school may be open to the reception of all children of this island [Penang], of every description, whose parents or friends are willing to submit them to the rules of the Institution. Second, that it will be the first object of the Institution to provide for the education of such children as would otherwise be bred up in idleness and consequent vice and without any means of obtaining useful learning or any manual em-ployment, and to implant in them the early habits of industry, order and good conduct. Third, that such parents as are capable of supporting the expense of their children shall be called upon for payment of such small demands as may be thought proper to be required. Fourth, that any part or all of the children may be instructed in reading and writing English and in the common rules of arithmetic. Fifth, that great care be taken that the prejudice of parents to the Christian religion be not by any means vio-lated.
17. Extract from a speech by Robert Lowe, M.P., Vice-President of the Committee of the Privy Council on Education, in the British House of Commons, 1 August 1863; cited in J. Stuart Maclure (ed.), Educational Documents, England and Wales 1816 -1968 (London: Methuen, 1965), p. 79.
As the brief quotation below illustrates, Sir Robert Lowe was more an administrator
49.
Including, it appears from the list of members in Featherstone's book (pp. 126-27), Mrs Irwin!
50.
The Rev. Dr R.S. Hutchins was Chaplain at Penang and a prominent Anglican mission-ary in the region, whose role in the development of education in Malaya and Singapore may stand comparison with the role of James Legge, a little later, in Hong Kong.
than an educationalist. He is best known in the history of English education as the architect of the Revised Code, which introduced the system of 'Payment by Results', and which he was attempting to justify in this speech.
I cannot promise the House that this system [of government subven-tion of education]51 will be an economical one and I cannot promise that it will be an efficient one, but I can promise that it shall be one or the other. If it is not cheap, it shall be efficient; if it is not efficient, it shall be cheap.
18. A graph showing relative attendances of pupils at 'Mission schools' and 'Government schools', 1844^65 (Illus. 3.4).
School Attendances, 1844-1865.
No. of pupils
1288 -r
‧
Mission School Attendances
‧
Government School Attendances
n ,n ji I IiMi
O !'‧' |" |l * |H |M l|M \\\ I l|l I l|M l|l I l|f.l l|l 1 l|l 1 l|N \\U 1|1 I l|M l|l 1 l|ti I|F1 1|N l|t,l l| 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
Year
Illus. 3.4 The relative attendances of pupils at 'Mission schools' and 'Government schools', 1844-65.
51. The system being described by Lowe at this time was the famous (or infamous) 'Revised Code' which, concocted in the light of the Newcastle Commission's 'Report on Education', introduced a system of 'payment by results', which tied a school's financial aid from the government to its pupils' results in certain tests.
See Evidence 15 above, for remarks about the need for efficiency in the Hong Kong educational system, and the Chronicle for 1873, in Chapter 4 below, for the introduction of 'payment by results' into Hong Kong.
VARIATIONS ON A MISSIONARY THEME
As mentioned in Chapter 1, educational statistics are characteristically unreliable. The figures upon which the graph on p. 192 is based are taken from the contemporaneous Government Blue Books rather than the later Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong in order to optimize reliability, but, even so, the sorts of problems about attendance records that Stewart identified ensure that even these figures should be regarded as tentative estimates. With such reservations, the graph above presents a per-spective on the variations on the missionary theme.
19. Photographic evidence (Illus. 3.5a & b).
In the first photograph, taken in 1868, the hill in the left background is Morrison Hill; the large white building is near the site of the Morrison Education Society School, which was the first Western-style school in Hong Kong, opened in temporary premises in November 1842 and on Morrison Hill in 1843 and closed in 1849. The foreground shows the Happy Valley Race Course.
The second photograph shows a cricket game in progress on the 'Praya' (or waterfront) in about 1860. One can reasonably infer that the site of this game was the ground used by the Hong Kong Cricket Club. On the expiry of the Cricket Club's lease more than a century later, this part of the 'piazza' or 'praya'52 became Chater Gardens.
Illus. 3.5a Happy Valley in 1868.
52. 'Plaza' or Tlazza' is the word used to identify the photograph and, also, in G.R. Sayer,
Hong Kong 1841-1862: Birth, Adolescence and Coming of Age (with new Introduction and
Additional Notes by D.M. Emrys Evans) (Hong Kong : Hong Kong University Press, 1980),
p. 172. 'Praya' is the Portuguese term commonly used in Hong Kong as well as Macau to represent the waterfront. See also the Chronicle for 1851, above.
sat 2￡8Sr
J*^***"??-~T~*^&.fX***v'*'
‧.J&0&BSKf:
jp-urtijr--
<^****** .. .
Illus. 3.5b A cricket game on the Praya in about 1860.
20. 'A Chinese school' (Illus. 3.6).
The illustration below is a copy of a lithograph in George Smith's A Narrative of an Exploratory Visit to Each of the Consular Cities of China. The accompanying text refers to a visit which Smith made to a traditional Chinese school in Shanghai, but the general impression produced would certainly apply to Chinese schools in Hong Kong, both before and after the arrival of the British.
Illus. 3.6 A Chinese school.
Chapter Four
CONSOLIDATION, CONFLICT AND CONTROL 1865-1913
COMMENTARY
In an analysis of the all but half-century of developments from the abolition of the Board of Education to the enactment of the first Education Ordinance, several events seem to clamour for turning-point status. Similarly, the claims of a number of individuals to be regarded as seminal, or, at least, constructively instrumental, appear to advertise themselves. It is especially tempting to split this quite lengthy period into more manageable, turning-point oriented or opinion-leader shaped, splinters. Such a convenient temptation has been resisted for one main reason. Whatever the argument put forward to justify a shorter time-span with regard to the officially-acknowledged and often officially-assisted 'stream' of schooling, it fails to operate convincingly with regard to the other, contemporaneous 'folk-stream'. The former type of schooling, whether one is concentrating on govern-ment schools, mission schools, the later grant schools or even private schools, was influenced primarily by a set of events centred on 'above-the-surface' Hong Kong and in Britain. The latter was influenced largely by events and attitudes in 'below-the-surface' Hong Kong and in China. It persisted largely independently of atten-tions by the Hong Kong Government. At least in the longer view, which one may take by examining the years 1865 to 1913, various sub-themes and separate devel-opments can identify themselves, overlap and cross-fertilize; and the whole may be seen as leading to the assumption by the Hong Kong Government of the right to inspect all schools within the territory of Hong Kong. This assumption was quite a novel one. Indeed, it was said to be unprecedented in the (then) British Empire. At least part of the fascination of a study of the years 1865 to 1913 in the history of Hong Kong's educational system derives from attempts to explain how a 'one-man band' changed into at least a rudimentary bureaucratic control-structure.
The context in which educational developments may be fruitfully seen during this period is one which includes a fluctuating but generally expanding popula-tion1 and a sensitive but on the whole more substantial economy. This latter trend
1. The population of Hong Kong (and Kowloon) dropped from 125,504 in 1865 to 121,985 in 1872, but had reached 139,144 by 1876,160,402 in 1881,224,814 in 1891, and 300,660 in 1901 (not including the people of the New Territories who were counted separately as 102,254), and 456,739 in 1911. The main reasons for the decrease in the late 'sixties include the trade depression and the reduction of immigration from China caused partly by more stable conditions in China (e.g., the Taiping Uprising was finally quashed) and partly by MacDon-
certainly included short phases of recession which occurred with depressing frequency and with some firms actually collapsing from the strain.2 On the other hand, the period as a whole, witnessed economic growth — a growth in the activities of Hong Kong Chinese enterprises, as well as the establishment or strengthening of large Hong Kong European companies such as Jardine and Matheson, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, Butterfield and Swire, Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Company, etc. With much of the economy related to entrepot trading and its requisite infrastructure (e.g., banks, commercial law, accountancy and shipping), there was an intermittently increasing demand for reasonably well-educated clerks and other 'white-collar workers', especially those who were bi-lingual.
The local situation, especially as affected by the Self-strengthening and mod-ernization movements on the mainland,3 encouraged the trend that very prag-matic (usually vocational) considerations would motivate the demand for and expectations of schooling by Hong Kong youth. For the ambitious and the help-fully-connected, opportunities opened up during this period. A few could aspire to make fortunes by becoming 'compradores'4 in the China trade. Others might enter such professional fields as law and medicine.5 Some would find positions, initially, in the middle and lower levels of Government service.6 Throughout the
nell's discriminatory legislation (such as the Victoria Registration Ordinance and the Order and Cleanliness Ordinance) in Hong Kong. Both immigration and natural increases account for the developments after 1872.
2.
According to the Hong Kong Government's own Historical and Statistical Abstract, there were periods of depression starting in 1866,1872,1875,1879,1891,1896,1901 and 1906. The most dramatic collapses of companies occurred in 1866 when two banks suspended pay-ments, 1867 when the great business house of Dent and Co. collapsed (with immediate repercussions on St. Paul's College and the Morrison Education Society) and 1873 when several large firms collapsed. For further details, see Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong, 1841-1930, Subject Index, under 'Commerce and Industry7, pp. 11-12.
3.
At the same time, one should note T.C. Cheng's cautions on this point. See Evidence 2 in this chapter.
4.
'Compradore' is a word of Portuguese origin referring to the invariably Chinese or Eurasian individual who acted as the middleman between European or American compa-nies and their Chinese business contacts and employees. They did not, however, confine their activities to those of a 'go-between'. Instead, they often invested capital on their own initiative and for their own benefit. See Carl Smith, Chinese Christians..., esp. pp. 62 ff.
5.
For example, Ng Choy (Wu Ting Fan) was the first Chinese lawyer to be called to the Bar in Hong Kong and the first Chinese member of the Hong Kong Legislative Council; Ho Kai, like his brother-in-law, Ng Choy, studied law in England and also qualified as a medical doctor; plus the students of the Hong Kong College of Medicine. Interestingly few of this early elite group actually practised the professions in which they qualified, but many occupied themselves with politics.
6.
Many Chinese used government service, often in the capacity of interpreters, as a spring-
period, a significant proportion of Hong Kong school-leavers would seek ad-vancement in China and, of course, a significant proportion of new pupils would come from China. Inevitably, these factors affected attitudes and policies towards education. As will be seen, socio-economic developments, such as the strengthen-ing in this period of two relatively new social classes (wealthy, Westernized Chinese and working class Europeans) led to pressure for and eventually the foundation of new kinds of schools.7
Recognition of employment aspirations and opinion about the qualities of the
board to other, more lucrative employment, e.g., by foreign firms. For details about two early, long-serving, government employees, see Carl T. Smith, Chinese Christians .. ., pp. 127-28. For a discussion of the emergence of a Chinese elite in Hong Kong and, especially, of the composition of the small, English-educated elite, see ibid., pp. 103-71. For a discus-sion of a typical case of an upwardly mobile 'middleman' Chinese at the turn of the Century, see Anthony Sweeting, 'A Middleman for All Seasons: Snapshots of the Signifi-cance of Mok Man Cheung and his "English Made Easy'", Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 27,1987.
7. See Carl T. Smith, Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen and the Church in Hong Kong, especially pp. 52-74 and 103-71, for information on the emergence of a prosperous Chinese (and Eurasian) middle class, and HJ. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change, pp. 189-213, for a discussion of the condition of the European working class in nineteenth century Hong Kong. By the beginning of the twentieth century, attempts were made to im-plement a policy closely resembling educational apartheid, reinforced by social class dis-crimination. Appendix A to the 'Report of the Education Committee of 1902' provides inter-esting evidence of attitudes prevailing at the time, including, as it does the terms of the Petition dated 2 March 1901, from 'eight leading Chinese citizens':
'Sir,
On behalf of an important and influential section of the Chinese Community we desire respectfully to draw the attention of His Excellency the Governor to the urgent need for a suitable English School for the education of the children — both boys and girls — of the upper classes of the Chinese resident in this Colony...'
See also f.n. 16 and the Chronicle for 1901, below. E A. Irving, the Inspector of Schools, commented on another 1901 Petition for a sepa-rate school for European children:
'When we might have had a strong full-blooded British community born to the soil, to carry on our commerce against American, German, and French compe-tition in the Far East, we are laying up for ourselves [by depending hitherto on an ethnically integrated schooling system] an unlearned, unskillful, unpatriotic gen-eration of 'mean whites' to be the standing disgrace of the Colony.'
The Governor, Sir Henry Blake, explained the two petitions to the Colonial Office in the following terms:
It must be remembered that the children for whose education the establish-ment of a European School is desired are the children of respectable parents who cannot afford to send them home and who, in many cases, are driven by the
new pupils played very important roles in shaping the curriculum of Hong Kong schools, especially such institutions as the Government Central School, the Dioce-san Schools, St. Paul's College, St. Joseph's College and the West Point Reforma-tory, in the late nineteenth century. Perceptions of the calibre of the teaching force available also contributed, usually providing grounds for inertia.8 To these was sometimes added an awareness of the problems involved in teaching pupils, whose own culture and first language were replete with academic and literary achievements, through the medium of their second language and, also a sensitiv-ity about the possible political ramifications of including certain subjects in the curriculum.9 The influence of all these considerations needs to be compared with that of the presuppositions of some of the educators, especially missionaries, and the special enthusiasms of certain prominent individuals who were not profes-sionally involved in schooling.10 Such a study, together with an appraisal of the part played by traditional Chinese expectations as well as of the newly-gained
present system to the abandonment of their education as, in their opinion, the lesser of the two evils ...'
A petition on the subject of separate education has also been received from a number of Chinese gentlemen who pray for the establishment of a school where higher fees than those paid at the Queen's College may be charged. They are anxious to avoid the association of their children with the poorer classes at Queen's College and are willing to pay fees sufficient to support the school without cost to the colony, but they require the assistance of Government so as to secure a proper succession of masters .. /
8.
A clear impression of the very low prestige accorded to local teachers by officials may be gained from the annual reports of the school inspectors of the period. At various times, teachers were accused of sleeping on the job, gambling, opium-smoking (estimated to be true of 60% of all teachers in Hong Kong), telling fortunes, feeling pulses (i.e. 'moonlight-ing' as traditional healers), reading palms, drawing up petitions, undermining the teaching of the Christian religion, being highway robbers, and being illiterate. One was described as 'so miserable a being as to make all conversation with him disgusting'. Other comments on teachers are contained in Evidence 1(a), 7 and 19 in this chapter below. To say the least, these perceptions (whether prejudiced or objective) did not encourage reliance upon teach-ers as a force for curriculum change.
9.
Thus Dr George Bateson Wright attempted to justify his exclusion of Chinese History from the curriculum of Queen's College: 'On political grounds, I am strongly averse to any instruction in Chinese history which would expose us to the charge of being a nursery for Revolutionists on the Continent' (CO 129/311, p. 79, and also Evidence 18(b) in Chapter 1 above). An earlier Colonial Office minute ironically and succinctly summarizes queries about the relevance of the Hong Kong curriculum to the interests and needs of the pupils: T doubt whether any Chinaman is a more useful member of society for knowing the geogra-phy of the South Eastern counties of England, or of Bulgaria, or the pedigree of Lady Jane Gray, or even the provisions of the Act of Union and the present locality of Fontenoy. (All these questions have figured in the examination papers [of Queen's College] during the last two years.)' (CO 129/305, p. 683). See also, Evidence 17 in Chapter 1.
10.
For example, the interest of Governor MacDonnell in electricity and chemistry is claimed
respect for Western technology which some Chinese developed in this period, would form the basis for one of the most important chapters in a much-needed history of curriculum in Hong Kong.11 Quite a clear impression of the ihterplay of factors influencing curriculum content and at least indirectly affecting curriculum process may be gained by reading Frederick Stewart's 'Report on Education' for the year 1866, from which relevant extracts are included as Evidence 1(b) in this chapter.
A similar multiplicity of influences accounts for the establishment of many new schools and, as mentioned above, new types of schools. Of special interest in this respect is the short-lived Normal School12 of 1881-83, the Hong Kong College
to have had a direct influence on the curriculum of the Central School. See Hong Kong Government, Blue Book, 1866, p. 280 (and Evidence 1(b) below), Anon., Dates and Events
connected with the History of Education in Hongkong, p. 14, E.J. Eitel, ^Materials . . .', p. 353,
T.C. Cheng, The Education of the Overseas Chinese..., p. 109, and G.G. Stokes, Queen's College 1862-1962, p. 26.
11.
For classic analyses of the general factors which have influenced the shaping of the school curriculum, see Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (London: Chatto and Win-dus, 1961), pp. 125-55, and Michael F.D. Young, 'An Approach to the Study of Curricula as Socially Organized Knowledge', in Michael F.D. Young (ed.), Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education (New York: Cassell and Collier/Macmillan, 1971), pp. 19-46. For an interesting exercise in relating concepts of the curriculum as social control to the colonial experience, see Stephen Ball, 'Imperialism, Social Control and the Colonial Curriculum in Africa', in Ivor F. Goodson and Stephen J. Ball (eds.), Defining the Curriculum: Histories and Ethnographies (London: Falmer Press, 1984), pp. 117-48, and for earlier polem-ics about the effects on curriculum of a colonial (and colonialist) setting, see Martin Carnoy, Education as Cultural Imperialism (New York: McKay, 1974). Some of the raw-material for a history of curriculum in Hong Kong is, of course, provided in this book, e.g., Chapter 1, Evidence 7, 17, and 23, Chapter 2, Evidence 6 and 7, Chapter 3, Evidence 4, 6 and 12, Chapter 4, Evidence 7,8,12 and 24, and Chapter 5, Evidence 16 and 18.
12.
See Chronicle for 1881, below, for a brief summary of the beginning and end of this first Hong Kong experiment in formal, separately-provisioned teacher education. See also, T.C. Cheng, 'The Education of Overseas Chinese', p. 122, Ng Lun Ngai-ha, Interactions of East and West, p. 75 (though it should be noted that the Normal School was not a class 'set up in the Central School', but operated in its own premises in Wanchai). Both official and polemical writing of the time was full of very critical comments about the personal qualities and professional competence of local teachers (e.g., Evidence 1(a), 7 and 19, and f.n. 8 in this chapter), but apart from reliance upon a teacher-pupil scheme at the Central School (see Evidence 1(b)), the only provisions for the professional preparation of teachers in Hong Kong during the whole period was this 1881-83 experiment, supported by Hennessy and Eitel, but rejected by the 'Report of the Education Commission, 1882' as well as by the Colonial Office; and after 1907, evening classes at the Technical Institute. Stewart had recognized the problem much earlier. In his 'Annual Report on the State of Government Schools for the Year 1874', he wrote:
The question of a Training School for teachers is a difficult one for Hongkong.
of Medicine for Chinese13 founded in 1887, the Belilios Public School opened in 1893,14 the various study-groups, literary societies and other politically-oriented
If the time were ripe for a revolution against the traditions of centuries, a training school here would serve for the adjoining Province as well as for the colony; but such an era is too far distant to be seriously thought of. The consequence, there-fore, is that, to get an efficient training school, the Colony would have to go to great expense for the training of three or four masters a year, after the first forty or fifty had been made competent. The English schools in the Colony will, some day, pave the way for such an institution...' (Hong Kong Government Gazette, 27 Febru-ary 1875, p. 59).
This situation may be compared with that of Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States, where the 1870 Committee set up to enquire into the position of the training of teachers for the English medium schools recommended the pupil-teacher system as the most effective remedy for the lack of teachers in the two territories and where proposals in 1904 and 1910 for a central Training College had to be abandoned because of the lack of applications. Unwillingness to rely totally upon traditional Muslim teachers led, however, to the conversion of the Malay High School in Singapore into a training college for Malay teachers in 1878 and the establishment of another training college for Malay teachers at Malacca in 1901. The teacher education situation in Britain was a little better. The teacher-pupil scheme was a long-lasting, but not always effective, variant of the Monitorial System, training colleges were encouraged to abbreviate their courses, and universities began to become involved only from the 1890s.. See H.C. Dent, 1870-1970: Century of Growth in English Education, pp. 19-23, and David Wardle, English Popular Education, 1780-1975, pp. 99-115.
13.
See Lindsay Ride/The Antecedents', in B. Harrison (ed.), The First 50 Years: University of Hong Kong, pp. 5-22. The College of Medicine for Chinese represents the first Hong Kong endeavour in higher and professional education. As Ride indicates, important initiatives which led directly to the foundation of the College came from such diverse sources as a major missionary organization (the London Missionary Society), a very prominent member of the new Chinese elite in Hong Kong (Ho Kai), and a relative newcomer to Hong Kong who was a medical practitioner and an energetic enthusiast for public health (Dr Patrick Manson). The establishment of the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese may be viewed as a very important step in the progress of Western medical science, not merely in Hong Kong, but in the Far East generally. Especially prominent in the minds of the founders seems to have been a recognition of the need to train Chinese 'dressers' and other medical assistants. See Dafydd Emrys Evans, Constancy of Purpose: Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1987), and Lo Hsiang-Lin, Hong Kong and Western Cultures (Honolulu: East West Centre Press, 1963), pp. 157-94, plus Evidence 9 below.
14.
As commentaries, chronicles and evidence in this and other chapters indicate, tradi-tional attitudes, especially as affected by ethno-sexual tensions, played a major part in shaping opinion about the need for and the anticipated results of schooling for females. Basic attitudinal changes, which must have been influenced by demographic, socio-eco-nomic and political developments, as well as individual opinions, may be discerned in the differences between Evidence 1(a) and (c) and 10 in this chapter below. Eh* EJ. Eitel, the Inspector of Schools at the time, was responsible for pressing the case of female education
educational enterprises of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,15 the Kowloon British School16 founded in 1902, St. Stephen's College17 in 1903, the
upon the Hong Kong Government and the Colonial Office. This pressure led to the estab-lishment of a small government school for girls in rented premises in 1890. Mr E.R. Belilios, a local philanthropist of Portuguese-Indian ancestry, who was a successful stock and bullion broker, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, and holder of the opium monopoly in Hong Kong, offered a substantial donation to the Government for the purpose of female education on condition that a school be named after him. Despite some Colonial Office reservations, the offer was accepted. At the inauguration ceremony for the Belilios Public School, Belilios himself was reported (in a Daily Press article of 19 December 1893) to have said: 'Education will do very much to rectify this injustice by raising the status of women and placing them more on a level with the stronger sex.' See CO 129/254, pp. 254 ff., and CO 129/260, pp. 471 ff. As will be seen below, Belilios also used his financial success in an attempt to help another disadvantaged sector of the population. He provided the funds for the establishment of a Reformatory, intended to provide practical and technical education for poor boys who had fallen foul of the law.
15.
For example, the Fu Jen Wen-She (or Fu Jen Literary Society) was founded in 1892, and the Kuang-Han Hsueh-Hsiao (School for the Revival of the Han) was founded in 1904, but both were ordered by the Hong Kong Government to be closed in 1905. These and other private institutions concentrated upon political propaganda very critical of the Qing Gov-ernment in China.
16.
Earlier attempts to establish separate schools for children of the European population, and especially for those of limited means, are noted in Chapter 3 (see the Chronicle for 1844, 1845 and 1855) and also in this chapter (Chronicle for 1870-72 below). By the end of the century, both the numbers of such children (especially in Kowloon) and their parents' sense of dissatisfaction about the absence of government provision for them had increased. An impression of prevailing attitudes and opinions, particularly as provoked by Bishop Hoare's speech at the Diocesan Boys' School Prize Distribution of 1901, may be gained from a perusal of the Chronicle for 1901 and 1902, Evidence 21 in Chapter 1, and Evidence 15 and 16 in this chapter, below. It should be noted that Robert Ho Tung, himself a Eurasian, was persuaded to change fundamentally the terms of his offer to donate funds for a school in Kowloon (originally intended to cater for children of any race or creed) and hand it over to the Government in order that the Government could respond quickly to the 1901 Petition and provide a school exclusively for Europeans. Despatches to the Colonial Office make it quite clear that the school required was meant to cater for children whose parents were occupied in the 'mechanical and engineering trades', such as 'skilled British labour in the dockyards' (CO 129/306, pp. 308 ff.). The Petition itself is quite circumspect about racial discrimination, though it does include the claim that 'as regards the acquirement of knowl-edge, the mixture of races operates very injuriously upon the European. The Chinese come to these schools to learn English, not to acquire a general knowledge' (CO 129/306 p. 313). The Colonial Office reply indicates considerable embarrassment about the racial connota-tions (1 do not think it a happy solution of difficulties that the generosity of... Mr. Ho Tung intended to benefit all nationalities should be diverted to the education of children of European British parentage alone' —Joseph Chamberlain, 10 September 1901, in CO 129/ 311, p. 43), but did not refuse permission for the school to be opened on racial lines. The school retained its racial exclusivity until after the Second World War. Similar thinking lay
Technical Institute18 in 1907 and the University of Hong Kong19 in 1911. In its own way, each of these institutions bears witness to the increasing scope and diversifi-cation of educational provision in Hong Kong during the period.
As the scope of schooling increased, so the need for consolidation and profes-sionalization became more pressing, the possibilities of conflict more widespread, and the conflicts themselves more intense.
Moves to consolidate educational provision in Hong Kong may be detected in numerous developments during the period. These included the abolition of the
behind a proposal to establish a school for Indian boys (the Ellis Kadoorie School for Indians) in 1904 (see CO 129/322, pp. 242 ff.).
17.
St Stephen's College was founded as a response to the Petition, dated 2 March 1901, this time from eight leading Chinese Gentlemen' who desired, on behalf of an important and influential section of the Chinese population, a Itigher grade school' modelled on English public school lines for their children. The Petition includes the comment that The Queen's College and the Belilios Public School are excellent Government institutions in their way, but the exceedingly large number of pupils attending these schools and the paucity of English teachers, the indiscriminate and intimate intermingling of children from families of the most various social and moral standing, render them absolutely undesirable as well as unsuitable for the sons and daughters of respectable Chinese families.' (Hong Kong Govern-ment Gazette, 2 March 1901, pp. 236-37).
18.
The Technical Institute took over the 'evening continuation classes' which had been started at the Queen's College premises in October of the previous year. It is, thus, as significant for the history of adult education and teacher education in Hong Kong as it is for the history of technical education. The only earlier moves in the direction of technical education were both connected with delinquent youths. The West Point (later named St. Lewis or St. Louis) Reformatory had been founded in 1864 (see Chapter 2 and Evidence 3 in this chapter). In 1898, Mr E.R. Belilios had also taken the initiative to donate the money for a Reformatory and Industrial School', but the Belilios Reformatory was soon struggling, much to the displeasure of Joseph Chamberlain, the Secretary of State for the Colonies.
'Nor am I satisfied with the fate of the Reformatory. It was built to supply what was supposed to be a need. It was welcomed by the Government and much trouble was taken in selecting specially qualified masters from this country. These steps have no sooner been taken that the institution is found to be wholly superflu-ous and to supply no want at all. It is impossible in the light of this fiasco and also in the light of previous voluminous but somewhat unfruitful correspondence and reports on educational subjects to feel much confidence that the position in Hong Kong has been fully gauged ...' (Joseph Chamberlain to Sir Henry Blake, Gover-nor of Hong Kong, 12 September 1902, in CO 129/311, pp. 43-44).
19.
See George Endacott, The Beginnings', in B. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 23-37, and B. Mellor, The University of Hong Kong: An Informal History, pp. 15-44, for discussions of the diverse political, socio-economic and personal factors which led to the foundation of the University of Hong Kong, with its clear intention not only to serve as the apex of Hong Kong's own educational system but also to 'serve China'. At least part of the motivation of some supporters of the University idea was the desire to maintain the prestige of the British Empire. See Evidence 18 below.
well-meaning but amateur Board of Education in 1865 and its replacement by a government department; the introduction and revision of a Code of Grant-in-Aid for certain schools in 1873 and 1879 (with further revisions later); the separation of the duties of the Inspector of Schools and the Headmaster of the Central School from 1878 onwards; the Education Conference of 25 February 1878 which made important decisions about language policy and the Commission of 1880-82 (which whilst rejecting the option of elevating the Central School to 'collegiate status', clarified the relations among the Central School, the District Schools and the grant-in-aid schools); and the Report of the Education Committee in 1902 which inter alia foreshadowed the end of the 'dual system' whereby Queen's College had been administered separately from the rest of the Government schools.20 Significantly perhaps, it was only with the end of the dual system on 7 July 1909 that the title of the head of the Government 'Educational Department' was upgraded from In-spector of Schools' to 'Director of Education'. With the consolidation of all govern-ment schools under this single Director, further rationalization of the administra-tion of schooling became feasible, leading to increased bureaucratization. It should be noted, however, that, at the outset, the status of the Director of Education within the hierarchy of the Hong Kong civil service was not great and the Depart-ment itse^ remained relatively small. The rank of Director of Education was raised from that of a second class cadet officer to that of a first class cadet officer, equivalent to the Director of Public Works, only in 1913 (on the same day as the first Education Ordinance came into effect). E.A. Irving, the first Director, was neither a trained teacher nor a university graduate, though on occasions he insis-tently reminded people of his short spell as a 'prep' school teacher in England. In 1909, the administrative staff of the Education Department comprised three per-sons: the Director himself, the Sub-Inspector of Girls' Schools and the Sub-Inspec-tor of Vernacular Schools, supported by two junior staff for clerical work and two 'minor staff. A basis had, however, been established for future expansion and
specialization.
Conflict in the field of education was fuelled by religious, ethnic and political tensions. To appreciate the importance of the religious factor, it might be helpful to recognize the prominent (and chronologically prime) part played by missionaries in the spread of Western-style education in Hong Kong, with its potential for offending what were called 'native prejudices' or 'superstitions' and thereby dis-rupting business or diplomatic relations with the Chinese. Relevant also is the fact that this period witnessed bitter disputes in Europe over Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as the articulation in the Roman Catholic Church of the concept
20. The 'dual system', by which the Central School was administered and examined inde-pendently of the other government schools, developed after the separation of the duties of Inspector of Government Schools and Headmaster of the Central School, largely because of the personal animosity between the new Inspector, EJ. Eitel, and after 1882, the new Headmaster, G.H. Bateson Wright. The system continued even after Eitel's retirement in 1897 in deference to BatesonvWright's seniority, and was abolished on 1909 only on the latter's retirement.
of papal infallibility. In both these cases, organized religion may be seen to be responding to attack by taking the offensive itself. Serious controversy in Britain over the prospect of supporting denominational schools from public funds21 was reflected in cautious despatches to Hong Kong from the Colonial Office. Relations between the Chinese and the British communities in Hong Kong, while certainly beginning to develop symbiotic aspects, retained a capacity for friction which inevitably affected educational provision and attitudes. Typical manifestations may be seen in dissension over the City Hall Museum, the Po Leung Kuk and the foundation of the Kowloon British School.22 The political connotations of at least some schooling in Hong Kong became most clearly recognized near the turn of the century and were usually linked with reformist or revolutionary criticisms of the Qing Government in China. Perhaps the most dramatic proof of the connection between education and politics was provided by the murder, in early 1901, of a politically-active teacher in front of the pupils in his own classroom.23
Movements towards the consolidation of the schooling system, especially as enlivened by recurring conflicts, encouraged efforts by the Government to achieve more effective control. Tayment by results'24 was a strategy which offered some control of grant-in-aid schools. It was imported from Britain, established in Hong Kong as a fundamental part of the first Grant Code of 1873 and retained in the Revised Grant Code of 1879 which ended disputes over secular and religious education. It was not finally abolished until the 1904 Grant Code and was then replaced by provisions for the payment of grants to be based upon reports of in-spectors on the discipline, organization and facilities of a school, plus the overall performance of the pupils. Similar procedures for the control of the vastly more numerous private schools by means of government inspection were introduced, at least partly to eradicate political propaganda in schools, by the first Education Or-dinance, 1913.25 Perceptions of the Government's role in relation to education had
21.
This was heightened by the bitter dissension between non-conformist sects and the 'High Church' party of the Church of England, caused partly by the Oxford Movement.
22.
For example, see Evidence 5, 6,15 and 16, below. Evidence 17 indicates differences in attitudes between the British and the Hong Kong Governments, at least in the first years of the twentieth century.
23.
See Chronicle for 1901 and Evidence 14 below.
24.
'Payment by results' made the pupils' results in examinations at different 'standards' the principal criterion for the allocation of a school's grant-in-aid. It was popularized in Britain by the Tteport of the Newcastle Commission' (see Evidence 17 and f.n. 51 in Chapter 3 ~ above). The same control mechanism was adopted by the Legislative Council for Sin-gapore in 1874 and not revised until 1899. Because the size of the grant was dependent upon examinations in certain subjects, the 'payment by results' scheme tended to have a very stultifying effect on curriculum development and certainly provided motives for the under-valuation of such non-examined curriculum areas as physical education. Evidence 21 in this chapter includes reference to a local Hong Kong variant of the 'payment by results scheme'.
25.
See Chronicle for 1913 and Evidence 20 below.
clearly changed markedly during the period. In 1877, for example, it was seriously argued that provision of schools was not part of the Government's responsibility. In 1902, the Education Committee denied that it was the Government's responsi-bility to provide schools for all the children in Hong Kong. By 1913, it was recognized, though not without dissent, that the Government had the right to inspect even those schools towards which it made no financial contribution.26 This clear contrast suggests an important issue. The Commentary, Chronicle and Evi-dence provided here are intended to contribute to the substantiation and clarifica-tion of the issue. They should also make more explicit some of the questions which might fruitfully be posed in an historian's interactions with the primary sources of the period.
With such a long period, many other questions will enliven and inform such interactions. The few general questions which follow are designed simply as an introduction, and in the hope that they will help generate more detailed ones.
*
What changes can be detected in the attitudes of (a) the Chinese community of Hong Kong, (b) the European community of Hong Kong, and (c) the Hong Kong Government towards education in the period 1865-1913? (Subsidiary preliminary questions might concern the nature, or even existence, of 'com-munity-spirit' amongst the Chinese and the British, plus the changing expec-tations of the scope of the Government's responsibilities and, possibly, the changing concepts of 'education'. The provenance of the much commented upon 'pragmatic attitude' of the local Chinese towards education might also be queried.27)
*
How did developments in (a) China and (b) Britain affect education in Hong Kong, 1865-1913?
*
In what ways did the 'religious question' affect the development of schooling in Hong Kong in this period?
*
What weight should be attributed to the various factors influencing the cur-riculum in Hong Kong at this time?
26.
See Chapter 1, Evidence 14, for the 1877 argument that it was not a government's duty to educate the people over whom it holds sway. For information about the 1902 and 1912-13 attitudes, see Evidence 16,17,19 and 20 in this chapter and Evidence 1 in Chapter 5.
27.
The ideas of Raymond Williams would suggest a socio-economic source, in a neo-Marxist sense (Raymond Williams, op. cit., pp. 125-55); those of Carnoy would explain the attitude as a reaction to colonialist rule (Carnoy, op. cit., pp. 3 ff.). Other observers seem to attribute pragmatism to the Cantonese almost as an ethnic trait. For further comments on the prevalence of the materialistic attitude, see Bateson Wright's remarks in his report on Queen's College in 1904 (Chronicle for 1904 and f.n. 39).
*
Why did (a) Chinese and (b) non-Chinese set up schools in Hong Kong during this period?
*
How did the acquisition and development of additional territory by Hong Kong (i.e., the Kowloon peninsula from the 1860s onwards and the New Territories after 1898) affect the demand for and supply of schools?
*
What specific influences affected — in the sense of being either enabling or retarding forces — the development of (a) female education, (b) teacher edu-cation, (c) technical education, (d) early childhood education, (e) adult educa-tion, and (f) higher education, in this period?
*
If this period were to be subdivided or otherwise modified, what would be the most suitable starting and ending dates? Why?
CHRONICLE
1865: From June Frederick Stewart became, in effect, a one-man Government department, the Department of Government Schools (also referred to as the 'Educational Department7 and clearly, the direct forebear of the pres-ent Government Education Department).28 The first public examination was held at St. Saviour's College. The Government schools at Soo Kun Poo and Sai Ying Pun were completed.
1866: Important innovations were introduced in Government education policy, especially with regard to the Central School:
(i)
the Central School was opened to boys of all nationalities;
(ii)
the reading of the Bible in Chinese was stopped in the Central School and five of the village schools;
(iii) the study of the English language became obligatory in the Central School.
28. Hong Kong Government Gazette, 24 June 1865, p. 386. The Government Notification reads:
Tt is hereby notified that the functions of the Board of Education, to whom the best thanks of this Government are due, will cease on the 30th Instant; and that, from and after that date, the Government Educational Department in this Colony will be placed under the sole supervision of FREDERICK STEWART, Esquire, Head Master of the Central School.
By Order
W.H. ALEXANDER Acting Colonial Secretary. Colonial Secretary's Office, Hong Kong, 24th June, 1865/
By 1866, the Central School had already adopted what came to be re-garded as its essential characteristics. It was a Government Anglo-Chinese school which gave upper primary and secondary education to boys ad-mitted through a compulsory entrance examination. The whole course of study required seven years (one year in the Preparatory Class and one in each of six upper classes, with Class 1 representing the senior class). Promotion was determined by an annual written and oral examination (first introduced in 1864) held near the end of the Chinese New Year. All examination questions and answer papers were open to public inspection. The examination was 'public' in the sense that guests, sometimes includ-ing the Governor, were invited to give oral tests to the pupils.
The annual interport series of cricket matches against Shanghai was inaugurated.
1867: This year witnessed the dramatic collapse of Dent & Co., an event which among other things, led to the closure of St. Paul's College and of the Morrison Education Society, which donated its library to the City Hall. (The library was later moved to the University of Hong Kong).
1868: A modest scheme of financial aid was implemented for some Chinese village schools (the villagers to provide the premises and half the teacher's salary, the Government to provide the other half of salary — $5 per month). Three new schools (including two in Kowloon) immediately came under this system, three more in 1869 and five in 1870. Stewart was at first optimistic about this scheme but later he complained about the 'discour-aging' and 'corrupt' attitudes of the villagers.29 The Diocesan Native Female Training School, in a precarious financial position, was put under the 'immediate superintendence of Bishop Al-ford'. St. Paul's College was re-opened by Bishop Alford as a school for Eu-ropean boys only.
1869: This year marked the beginning of public controversy over the religious issue between, at first, Bishop Alford and Frederick Stewart. On 2 Febru-ary, the Bishop attacked the Government system of education as a 'god-less' one.
The Diocesan Native Female Training School was replaced by the 'Diocesan Home and Orphanage for English, Eurasian, Chinese and Other
29. In several cases, schools were established to meet the needs of a teacher looking for employment, rather than to cater for the educational needs of children in the locality. Frequently, the villagers refused to contribute their half of the teacher's monthly salary ($5) and even required the teacher to pay out of the $5 which the Government provided rent for the school premises and other impositions by the village elders. See Ng Lun Ngai-ha, Inter-actions ... (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1984), pp. 53-54.
Scholars'. This school absorbed the pupils from St. Paul's College which was again closed and was not reopened until 1876.
Chemistry and Geometry were added to the curriculum of the Central School with the arrival of the third English master (N.B. the suggestion of Governor MacDonnell in 1866 and possibly, the influence of the Self-strengthening Movement in China).
A grant was offered by the Government to the West Point Reforma-tory and justified by Governor MacDonnell in a speech at the St. Saviour's College Prize Distribution (20 March 1869) in the following terms: If it were not for this Institution the Government would have thrown upon its hands a great number of destitute children for whom a maintenance would have to be provided. Buildings would have to be erected, Superin-tendents provided, and a large expense therefore entailed upon the Col-ony. Now all that he had done was to make a very good bargain for the public. He had made a calculation based upon which he had given about one-fourth of what would otherwise be necessary to expend from public funds...'
Police Schools were established in which lessons in English were
available for Sikhs and Chinese and other forms of police training pro-
vided.
1870-72: Pressure increased for the establishment of a school for European and American children whose parents complained that they were either ex-pected to study Chinese subjects along with Chinese pupils at the Central School or were forced to enter a missionary school. The Legislative Coun-cil debated the matter on 29 April and 16 May 1872. A public meeting proposed by the Governor, Sir Arthur Kennedy, was held on 25 June 1872, chaired by him, but no immediate or satisfactory solution was reached largely because of the religious controversy and the lack of Government financial support. The attempt to revive St. Paul's College and transform it into a secular school for Europeans failed, even though it was backed by such prominent leaders as Phineas Ryrie, E.R. Belilios, H.N. Mody and Frederick Stewart.30 Instead, a 'private venture school', variously called the Hong Kong Public School and, later, the Victoria English School,31 was established under the headmastership of Mr J.M. Hanlon. This was one of
30.
According to Eitel, the committee appointed after the public meeting of 26 June 1872 included all of these and other personages.
31.
This name caused some confusion between 1889 and 1894 when the Central School was re-named Victoria College. Possibility of such confusion provides at least part of the reason for the change to a third name of what was originally the Central School, Queen's College. 'Colonial' or 'Jarrett', in his series of newspaper articles on 'Old Hong Kong', by failing to detect this similarity in names, mistakingly attributes to J.M. Hanlon the headmastership of the school out of which Queen's College developed ('Old Hong Kong', p. 916).
209
the first Grant-in-Aid schools after Stewart introduced the original Code in 1873 and remained a secular school mainly for Europeans, under the nominal supervision of Phineas Ryrie until 1877 when it came under Roman Catholic management.
1870: At the Government Central School elementary music was taught as an experiment (but this was not continued in subsequent years).
1871: More Government-aided village schools were established in Kowloon.
1872: The Government Wanchai School was built. The Board of Examiners in Chinese for Government officers was es-tablished.
1873: Stewart's Grant-in Aid scheme was introduced and implemented to offer aid conditionally to voluntary (mainly missionary) schools. The condi-tions were that the grant would be offered only to public elementary schools, with an average attendance of not less than 20, offering purely secular instruction for not less than four consecutive hours daily. The schools needed to be represented by a manager and to be open to inspec-tion, while the grants were to be dependent on the results of an annual examination on secular subjects laid down by the Inspector or other Government-approved examiners. The influence of the 'Revised Code' and the 1870 Forster Education Act in Britain may be detected in this Grant Code. It should be noted, however, that Stewart did not fully and explicitly adopt the 'timetable conscience clause' by which the Forster Act permitted financial support from the central government to be given to denominational schools but enabled parents to withdraw their children from religious instruction which was scheduled only during the first or last period of the day so that no one would miss any of the secular education. The enactment of the Grant Code stimulated further contro-versy and especially bitter opposition from the Roman Catholics. By the end of 1873, all Catholic schools had withdrawn from (or refused to enter) the scheme. A committee for the compilation of Chinese school-books was ap-
pointed, with E.J. Eitel as Chairman, in an effort to ensure that there
would be texts in Chinese which could satisfy the requirement for purely
secular education. The first newspaper under solely Chinese management in Hong Kong began its publication. This was the Universal Circulating Herald, which was printed on a type foundry bought from the London Missionary Society.
1874: Government Central School Scholarships were established.
1875: With the arrival of the Christian Brothers in Hong Kong, St. Saviour's
changed its name to St. Joseph's College (still unsupported by Govern-ment grants).
1876: Members of the first Mission from the Chinese Empire to Britain, passing through Hong Kong on their way to Europe, asked to be allowed to inspect the Central School. Halliday Macartney, then interpreter and ad-viser to the Mission and later Chancellor of the Chinese Legation in London, reported that the classrooms were 'densely crowded with pupils, many of whom were adults'. St. Paul's College was re-opened by Bishop Burden and immediately placed under the Grant-in-Aid scheme. During the year, it had an average attendance of 102 Chinese and European boys in the charge of Mr A.J. May.
1877: Two anonymous pamphlets, both critical of Government education policy, were published: The Central School: Can it Justify its raison d'etre? and Dates and Events (1857-77) connected with the History of Education in Hong Kong. On 27 April, Phineas Ryrie resigned from the managership of Hanlon's Hong Kong Public School and this originally secular school was taken under Catholic management through Mr J.J. dos Remedios, together with Mrs Hanlon's Girls' School (the Victoria English Girls' School) and a new Portuguese school which had been started by the Remedios daughters. These three schools had an aggregate attendance of 66 boys and 68 girls.
1878: On 25 February a brief 'Education Conference' was held in the Council Chambers, presided over by the Governor, John Pope Hennessy and attended by Stewart, E.J. Eitel and six members of the Legislative Council. The Conference declared that 'political and commercial interests rendered the study of English of primary importance in all Government schools'. When Stewart proceeded on long leave (March), the responsibilities of Headmaster of the Central School and of Inspector of Schools were separated; the Second Master, Mr Alexander Falconer took over as Acting Headmaster and E.J. Eitel as Acting Inspector of Schools. The separation of responsibilities was confirmed in 1879 when Stewart returned as Head-master of the Central School and again in 1881 when he resigned from this position. The Po Leung Kuk was established by a group of Chinese to prevent the kidnapping of girls and the ill-treatment of domestic servant girls (the 'mui-tsai'). Keen interest in this issue had been stimulated by remarks made by the Chief Justice, Sir John Smale, about the resemblance of domestic servitude to slavery and about the prevalence of kidnapping and other pressures for the purpose of prostitution. Two petitions from prominent Chinese residents then called for the establishment of an anti-kidnapping society. Amongst the correspondence which grew up about the issue is a memorandum by E.J. Eitel in which he claims that many
school girls who needed to journey to schools in central Hong Kong at this time customarily dressed as boys in order to avoid being kidnapped on their way to or from school.
1879: The Revised Code for the Grant-in-Aid scheme was enacted, largely based upon suggestions from Bishop Raimondi and enthusiastically espoused by Hennessy, the Roman Catholic Governor. In drafting terms, the revi-sion was very simple: the limit of an average attendance of 20 was deleted; the word 'elementary' was deleted; and both 'secular7 and 'consecutive' were also deleted. The repercussions were, however, very great. The leading Roman Catholic schools (e.g., St. Joseph's College) now accepted grant-in-aid status and thus the 'religious question' was considered to be answered. In the next few decades, the 'grant schools' began to overtake government schools in terms of numbers and prestige.
1880: The Tung Wah Hospital committee opened its first school (at the Man Mo Temple in Hollywood Road). Governor Hennessy appointed an Education Commission 'to enquire to what extent and at what cost and under what circumstances . . . new (government) schools may be made to take the place of the Central School in giving an elementary education... and to enquire at what cost and with what staff and organization the Central School may be raised into a Collegiate Institution, giving a higher education in English and Science...' The Polo Club was started.
1881: A 'Normal School' for the training of Chinese teachers of English was established in Wanchai with Mr A.J. May, the third master from the Central School, as headmaster. Ten students, nine of them products of the Central School, were selected for training and were offered an allowance of $48 per year for the three year course. Hennessy did not, however, take the precaution of submitting the plan to the Colonial Office. The Secretary of State for the Colonies objected to the Scheme and eventually (i.e. in September 1883) this first experiment in formal teacher education in Hong Kong was aborted.32
32. The Earl of Kimberly, Secretary of State for the Colonies, initially demanded that the money voted for the Normal School venture should be cancelled, but after urgent tele-graphic importuning by Hennessy, permitted the scheme to continue, pending a full report as to the vacancies expected for teachers, the total cost and the nature of any bond de-manded of the students. He allowed the students to receive their allowances for the first year, but forbade it for the second and third years of the course. The arrangement that students should be accommodated at government expense in the school was accepted only temporarily and a bond by which students contracted to teach after the conclusion of the
A school magazine, Our Boys, was produced at St. Joseph's College and edited by a pupil, C.E. de Lopes e Ozorio. This has strong claims to be considered the first Anglo-Chinese school magazine published in Hong Kong, but ceased publication a few years later when Ozorio left school.
1882: The report of the Education Commission, published after Hennessy's departure from Hong Kong, dismissed the idea of a collegiate institution because of cost and recommended developing the Central School 'on its present basis', pointing out that the great need of the majority of the. population was a sound elementary education and that the Government should not establish an institution which would be mainly for the advan-tage of the wealthy members of the community. It supported the opening of five new 'district schools' (the new name for village schools) but con-demned the continued existence of a separate Normal School because 'when the Central School had been put on a proper footing, the Headmas-ter would be able to make all the necessary arrangements for the training of the limited number of teachers required.'
1883: The Belilios Scholarships were established. A new building for St. Joseph's (R.C.) College for boys was inaugu-rated.
1884: Governor Bowen introduced government scholarships (2) for advanced studies in England in the fields of Medicine, Law or Civil Engineering. The Jockey Club was formed.
1885: The Central School was offered a prize of $25 to be competed for only by Chinese boys. When, however, the Headmaster was informed that the prize would be given to the Chinese boy who could swim best, the offer 'was deferred for consideration sine die! because no Chinese boy at the school had yet learned to swim.
1886: The Cambridge Local Examinations were first held in Hong Kong. Eitel's Annual Report for 1886 included: 'Since the autumn of the year 1884, when in consequence of local disturbances, the attendance of all the Chinese Schools suddenly fell off and many children were, in a panic, removed from the Colony to their homes on the mainland, the annual increase of Schools and scholars has come to a standstill. A fresh panic occurred in spring 1886 when, in consequence of an idle rumour to the effect that the Schools under Government were required to furnish a
course in a government school for five years at a salary of $25 per month was insisted upon. Three students immediately left the programme. By the time the scheme was concluded, only four students remained. Of these, two actually became teachers.
number of boys and girls to be buried alive in the tunnel of the Taitam water works, as the success of those works depended upon such a human sacrifice, most of the Chinese Grant-in-Aid Schools in the centre of the town were emptied of scholars for several days, until a proclamation of the Registrar-General allayed the excitement. The fact that such a silly rumour found credence with numbers of Chinese mothers, is a striking evidence of the lamentably low state of female education in the Colony.. ,'33
1887: The Alice Memorial Hospital was established by private initiative (mainly that of Ho Kai). In connection with it, the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was instituted (with neither buildings nor an endowment of its own).
1888: In his 'Annual Report on Education' for this year, Dr Eitel added to his usual plea that the Government should pay more attention to female education, the following warning: There is however, some danger in the commercial value which the needle-work that is being done in some Girls Schools has, viz., the danger of giving too much time to needle-work, such as pays the School directly, at the expense of the less remunerative train-ing of the mind which benefits the scholar/ (Hong Kong Government Ga-zette, 30 March 1889, p. 249). The range of subjects taught at the Central School was widened to include Trigonometry, Latin, and Shakespeare.
1889: Oxford Local Examinations replaced Cambridge Local Examinations.34 The Central School was renamed 'Victoria College' and moved to its
33.
Hong Kong Government Gazette, 14 May 1887, p. 535. See also, Evidence 13 for a report of a similar rumour which had dramatic effect on school attendance during the first of the plague years and which equally well demonstrates the huge distance between the Hong Kong Government and the mass of the Hong Kong people in nineteenth century Hong Kong. Very similar rumours were circulating in China at the time, especially about the activities of missionaries and were partly responsible for popular support for the Boxer Movement. See also Elizabeth Sinn, The Tung Wah Hospital 1869-1896: A Study of a Medical, Social and Political Institution in Hong Kong' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Univer-sity of Hong Kong, 1987), esp. pp. 186 ff. for a discussion of the way in which the Committee of the Tung Wah Hospitals attempted to serve as a 'bridge between the magistrate and the local community' and of the resentment that this engendered among government officials and the European community.
34.
Dr Bateson Wright later explained this change to 'Colonial', who was the author of newspaper articles on 'Old Hong Kong' in the 1930s:
The change from Cambridge Locals to Oxford came about as follows: Mr. Bateman, Headmaster of St. Paul's College School introduced the former, and I sent boys in. Finding however that information of changes in Plays and Books arrived too late in the Colony to allow our candidates sufficient time for prepara-tion, I wrote to the Cambridge Syndicate to allow us advance information, which they refused. An application to Oxford was graciously considered and approved. The whole colony was benefited and the change was effected. Some people may have thought that as an Oxonian myself I desired the alteration but it never entered my mind/ ('Old Hong Kong', p. 926).
new site in Aberdeen Street which provided accommodation for 924 schol-
ars (subsequently increased).
1890: The Government Central School for Girls (later named Belilios Public
School) was founded. It was located at 16 Hollywood Road which was on
the corner of Old Bailey Street and Hollywood Road and aimed to give 'an
ordinary middle-class English education' to the daughters of Chinese,
European and Indian residents of Hong Kong.
1891: The District School at Saiyingpun was built 35
1892: The Fu Jen Wen-She (Fu Jen Literary Society) was formed by a small group
of young Chinese men who had been educated in Hong Kong and were
very concerned about the political situation in China. The Society's chair-man was Hong Kong-born Yang Chu-yuan,36 and their motto was 'Ducit
Amor Patriae' (which can be literally translated as 'Love of the Fatherland
leads'). The society was archetypical of the 'study-groups' which sprang
up in Hong Kong during the latter part of the century.
1893: Dr E.J. Eitel, Inspector of Schools and head of the Education Department,
began implementing the policy of closing the cheaper Government (Ver-
nacular) District Schools. Eleven were closed during the year.
The Po Leung Kuk was incorporated under a special Ordinance (after the report of a special committee of enquiry).37
Belilios Public School (the re-named Government school for girls) was
officially opened on the site of the old Central School (in Gough Street).
35.
This may be regarded as the ancestor-institution of King's College, for which a founda-tion stone was laid in 1923 and which enrolled its first pupils in September 1926. See the relevant parts of the Chronicle in Chapter 5, below.
36.
For a report of his assassination by agents of the police chief in Canton, see Evidence 14 below.
37.
The enquiry was provoked by an attack on the Po Leung Kuk by Mr T.M. Whitehead (a member of the Legislative Councillor and prominent adherent of local government reform) on the grounds that it was a secret society. The Majority Report absolved the Po Leung Kuk from this charge and recommended that an Ordinance be passed legally incorporating the Society. See CO 129/259, pp. 209 ff., and H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change, pp. 82 ff.
1894: Victoria College was renamed 'Queen's College'. Four more Government Vernacular District Schools were closed. Bubonic Plague struck Hong Kong, beginning in May and leading to over 2,000 deaths during the year.
1895: The total number of Government Vernacular District Schools was reduced to nine by the end of the year.
1896: There was a recurrence of the Plague in the early months of the year. According to Eitel, 'compared with the enrolment of the previous year (236 Schools with 10,876 scholars), these [1896] figures show a decrease, caused by the renewed outbreak of the plague during the first few months of the year 1896, and amounting to 21 Schools with 1,190 scholars'. (Sup-plement to the Hong Kong Government Gazette, No. 31 of 3 July 1897, p. I). In the same report, Eitel refers to 'one Kindergarten School, the Basel Mission, which gives gratuitous teaching to young Chinese children at Saiying-poon, not merely combining play with work but giving useful instruction in the rudiments of industry by systematic training of hand and eye', (p. V).
1897: An area in Causeway Bay was set aside as Queen's Recreation Ground (this being a part of Hong Kong's celebration of Queen Victoria's Dia-mond Jubilee).
Dr E.J. Eitel retired from government service, left Hong Kong and settled in Australia. He was replaced as Inspector of Schools by Mr A.W. Brewin who was soon to be succeeded by Mr E.A. Irving.
1898: The annual Education Report for this year showed a large increase in the number of pupils in schools where elementary English was taught.
1899: In January, as a result of initiative by Mr Ford of the Government Botani-cal and Afforestation Department, negotiations were begun with the mili-tary authorities over a scheme to establish a public park in Kowloon (later 'King's Park').
1900: Ying Wa Girls School opened.
Robert Ho Tung offered the Government a donation to permit the establishment of a school in Kowloon which would provide a Western education for children of all races, irrespective of creed or nationality.
1901: Two petitions were presented to the Government: (i) from eight promi-nent Chinese, requesting the establishment of a Chinese High School, run on Western lines for Children of respectable Chinese families; and (ii) from leaders of the British community, requesting the establishment of a separate school for European children.
An Education Committee, chaired by Bishop Hoare and consisting of
A.W. Brewin (the Registrar-General and ex-Inspector of Schools), E.A.
Irving (the current Inspector of Schools)38 and Ho Kai as members, was appointed to provide the British Secretary of State for the Colonies (Joseph Chamberlain) with accurate information about education in Hong Kong.
1902: Robert Ho Tung was persuaded by the Government to permit his dona-tion to be used for the establishment of a school in Kowloon reserved for European children.
Bishop Hoare resigned from the Education Committee in March be-cause he considered that the 'draft Report drawn up by the other three members of the Committee contains many strong statements, with which I cannot agree, but which I have reason to believe I cannot get altered'. (CO 129/311, p. 120). The other members persisted with their views. Their Report appeared in the Government Gazette in April. It recommended: (1) separate schools for European children; (2) the founding of a Chinese High School; (3) that in vernacular schools Western knowledge should be a compulsory subject (N.B. the influence of the Hundred Days' Reforms and the Boxer Movement in China), that teaching methods should be improved (e.g., less memorizing and more practical teaching), scholar-ships should be provided for deserving pupils to proceed to the Anglo-Chinese schools, and that vernacular district schools should be estab-lished in connection with Anglo-Chinese district schools and linked with them through scholarships; (4) that on entering Government Anglo-Chi-nese schools pupils should possess a sufficient knowledge of the Chinese written language, and that English should be taught with a view to its practical use; (5) that Queen's College should supply an education to Chinese pupils only and that teaching should relate to local conditions (too much time was being spent on teaching 'dry facts relating to early and medieval English history and the geography of countries which are only remotely connected with the Far East'); (6) that grants should not be based 'entirely and unashamedly7 on examination results; (7) that govern-ment subsidies should be given to the rural schools already in existence in the New Territories; (8) that it was not yet time to develop higher educa-tion in Hong Kong and that government scholarships for higher studies in England should be discontinued (because the recipients rarely returned to Hong Kong); (9) that the 'dual system' (with Queen's College under its Headmaster and the other Government schools under the Inspector) should be discontinued.
In general, 'the Committee hold that what education is given should be thorough, and that better results will be obtained by assisting to en-lighten the ignorance of the upper classes of Chinese than by attempting to force new ideas on the mass of the people. Civilized ideas among the
38. E.A. Irving was appointed Inspector of Schools on 26 April 1901. He took over the control of the Department from A.W. Brewin on 1 May 1901 (Hong Kong Government Gazette, 20 June 1902).
leaders of thought are the best and perhaps the only means at present available for permeating the general ignorance: for this reason much more attention has been paid to the Anglo-Chinese schools than to the Vernacu-lar/ It should be noticed that the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Joseph Chamberlain, responded firmly against this policy (see Evidence 16 be-low).
Kowloon British School (later re-named King George V School) was opened, with an ethnically restricted intake.
1903: St. Stephen's Boys' School (or St. Stephen's College) was established, catering largely for Chinese children from the wealthy class. A new Grant Code which made grants dependent on results of in-spections of schools instead of on annual examinations of pupils was drafted and circulated among School Managers.
1904: The new Grant Code came into force on 1st January. This year's Annual Report for Queen's College included the following information: The total number on the Roll was 1,501, the average daily attendance being 1,000: both figures are in excess of those reached in 1903 and form a record. The slight diminution in Fees, $313, is due to the unprecedented exodus, in the first half of the year, of 166 boys from the Upper School, which in March consisted of 407 boys. The vacant accom-modation was as far as possible utilized for the Preparatory School where the fees are lower.'39 Referring to the senior boys who left in the first half of
39. Hong Kong Government Gazette, 3 February, 1905, p. 110; 'Report on the Queen's College for the Year 1904, dated 19 January 1905. Bateson Wright continued his report with an admonition of the parents: It is much to be regretted that parents and guardians do not recognize that it is a penny-wise-pound-foolish policy to curtail boys' education just when it is ripening, in order to earn so much the earlier a few dollars a month. Parents have subsequently deplored the fatal mistake they have thus made.' The problem had clearly not changed much in nature since being recognized by Frederick Stewart in 1866 (see Evidence 1(b)).
Later in the Report, Bateson Wright contributes the following information and opinion:
'At the last Prize Distribution held in the Central School (now Queen's College) in January 1888, Sir WILLIAM DES VOEUX spoke to the following effect: "The chief point I consider admirable about this school is its missionary purpose and work. The young men that complete their course of studies here are scattered over the vast empire of China and cannot fail to disseminate those Western ideas that they have acquired in this school, and that appreciation of British Government impressed upon them by their residence in this British colony." His Excellency rightly grasped the situation, but I venture to doubt that its full magnitude could have been realized by him. Say 9,000 boys have left this College and one-third are scattered on the mainland: then we have a small army of 3,000 unpaid missionaries spreading Western ideas.' (Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1905, p. 113)
the year, Gwenneth Stokes calculated that 'twenty-four found employ-
ment with [the Hong Kong] Government, fifty joined business firms in the
Colony, twenty-nine obtained situations in China and ten went abroad/40
1905: St. Stephen's Preparatory School (later St. Stephen's Girls' College) was
founded. Victoria British School was opened. The China Mail of 15 December included an editorial supporting the
creation of 'An Imperial University for Hongkong7. This editorial pro-voked local correspondence, an editorial response, and a brief article, dated 8 December (but published in Hong Kong on 19 December), from a correspondent in Tokyo.41
The Government Anglo-Chinese School at Aberdeen was opened.
The curriculum at the Government District Schools in Wanchai, Sai Ying Pun and Yaumati was made to coincide with that of the Lower and Preparatory School sections of Queen's College in the hope that the for-mer would serve as feeders to the latter.
1906: Evening Continuation Classes were first introduced in Hong Kong in October. Instruction was provided in Science, Engineering, Commerce and Teacher Training. Pupil teachers attended lectures taught by Euro-pean schoolmasters who were paid $5 per hour. Lecturers in Engineering and Science were paid at a higher rate! The classes were held at Queen's College, which also provided most of the lecturers, though there was no official connection with the school.
40. Gwenneth Stokes, Queen's College, 1862-1962 (Hong Kong: Queen's College, 1962), p.
255. Stokes unwittingly casts doubt on her own calculations, however, by referring to the 'eighty-nine senior boys who left in the first half of the year', a figure that is not only considerably smaller than Bateson Wright's, but is also smaller than the aggregate of the leaving groups which she identifies. The figures are amended in the Stokes' Queen's College: Its History, 1862-1987, so that they add up to eighty-nine, i.e., 24 to Government, 26 in Hong Kong firms, 29 in China, and 10 abroad (p. 255).
41. The correspondent from Tokyo commented about the strike of Chinese students in Japan against efforts by the Qing Government to control their political activities: 'As these young men are the flowers of the intellect of China it has occurred to me that it would be a great diplomatic stroke to afford them facilities for study in a British community.' (China Mail, Tuesday, 19 December 1905, p. 5) See also Evidence 18 below. Earlier references to the need for a university include Wang Chung-yu's letter criticizing proposals for ethnically separated education in February 1901 (see Evidence 15(c) below) and a suggestion by the Rev. A.B. Hutchinson of the Church Missionary Society in 1872 (George Endacott, The Be-ginnings', in Harrison (ed.), University of Hong Kong: The First 50 Years, p. 23). As recently as 1902, however, an official Government Committee (the Brewin/Ho Kai/Irving Education Committee) recommended that There should be no attempt to provide any sort of Univer-sity Education until a far firmer grounding for it can be found than now exists in the schools of Hongkong.' (Hong Kong Government Gazette, 11 April 1902, p. 517)
219
1907: A Technical Institute was established (without buildings of its own) to run 'evening continuation classes' in various technical subjects and also 'nor-mal classes' for teachers (i.e., teacher training).
1908: The Governor, Sir Frederick Lugard, expressed the hope during prize-giving at St. Stephen's College, that a university might be combined with the Hong Kong Medical College. Mr H.N. Mody, a Parsee businessman, offered to present the Colony with buildings necessary for a university. A Committee was formed to promote the undertaking and collect an endowment fund. An age-limit was introduced at Queen's College. As the College's 'Annual Report' laconically details '20 is the limit of age for Class 1 [the senior class]'.42
1909: On the retirement of Dr Bateson Wright, the 'dual system' was abolished and the Education Department, now including Queen's College, was con-solidated under one head, the Director of Education. The Department then had three administrative staff-members (the Director, the Sub-In-spector of Girls' Schools and the Sub-Inspector of Vernacular Schools) plus two junior clerks and two minor staff-members. The University of London agreed to assist the Governor in his promo-tion of a university in Hong Kong and to conduct final examinations for degrees to be conferred by the University of Hong Kong. An Endowment Fund was established for the proposed university. The Hong Kong Tennis League was formed, initially comprising seven teams, with the Chinese Y.M.C.A. as the sole Chinese team. The first signs of a Boy Scout movement can be detected in Hong Kong.
1910: The foundation stone of the University of Hong Kong was laid (March). A list of contributions showed that Chinese residents had contributed about $300,000 to the endowment fund out of a total of $692,012 up to that date.
Pupils from Queen's College (the College being known as 'the true Light of Asia' according to contributors to its magazine, Yellow Dragon) welcomed the 'new light of the world, Halley's Comef. A few pupils also
42. Hong Kong Government Administrative Reports, 1908, Appendix N, p. Nl. Gwenneth Stokes reports many examples of 'mature students' attending the Central School, Victoria College and Queen's College, but notes that in 1904, 'On 15th April a Chinese gentleman aged about 53 found his way to the covered playground during recess. After addressing a large crowd of boys on politeness, he stated that he wished to learn English, "the most useful language there was at the present moment." Although he was a Ku Yan (a Chinese M.A.) and would have had no difficulty in passing the new entrance test, he was deemed too old to be admitted.' (Stokes, op. cit, p. 256). Earlier, Macartney had also commented about the age of pupils at the Central School (see Chronicle for 1876).
demonstrated their modernity by cutting off their queues, and in a vote at the newly formed Debating Society of the College on the motion that 'the cutting of the queue is beneficial to the Chinese nation', there were only six votes in favour of queues and twenty-two against. According to Gwen-neth Stokes, however, a photograph of the 1910 scholarship holders, taken in early 1911, reveals only one boy without his queue.43
The Chinese Recreation Club was formed. One of its first activities was to erect the first Bathing Shed ever set up for Chinese people in Hong Kong.
1911: The semi-official Board of Chinese Vernacular Primary Education was formed (comprising the Director of Education, the Registrar-General and five prominent Chinese residents). The establishment of this Board was clearly linked with the effects of political unrest in China especially since the turn of the century, the influx of refugees, the subsequent growth in the number of private vernacular schools and the concern over political propaganda within such schools.
The Boy Scouts Association of Hong Kong was formally established.
The Rev. H.R. Wells, a missionary and accomplished sinologue, was appointed to the staff of Queen's College to supervise the Chinese curricu-lum at the school, assisted by five vernacular masters, all of whom were classical scholars. In the next few years, he perfected what became known as the pari-passu system, by which all Chinese pupils had to take an entrance examination in the Chinese language and Chinese became com-pulsory for them at Queen's College until they had reached the senior class. By these means, it was intended that the English and Chinese languages should be seen to rank equally in the school or, at least, that all Chinese pupils would be compelled to keep their knowledge of Chinese 'in step' with their attainments in English studies.
1912: The University of Hong Kong, incorporated by local Ordinance on 30 March 1911, formally opened with 77 students (mainly from China). Its initial objectives were 'the promotion of Arts, Science and Learning, the provision of Higher Education, the conferring of Degrees, the develop-ment and formation of the character of students of all races, nationalities and creeds, and the maintenance of good understanding with China/
1913: Ying Wa College was re-opened by the London Missionary Society (after nearly sixty years). The Diocesan Girls' School was opened. The first Education Ordinance was passed. It provided for the regis-tration and supervision of certain (mainly private) schools and was the
43. Gwenneth Stokes, Queen's College, 1862-1962, p. 279.
first measure of this sort anywhere in what was then the British Empire. As a result, the Education Department became responsible for 360 schools in the urban areas containing over 8,000 pupils and 260 schools in the rural areas with about 3,000 pupils. As Evidence 20(b) & (c) indicate, its initial reception was, to say the least, mixed.
EVIDENCE
1. Extracts from Frederick Stewart's 'Annual Reports on the State of Govern-ment Schools'.
Other extracts from some of these Reports appear in earlier chapters. The quotations below offer further evidence about a number of issues, including curricular, pedagogic and linguistic, but most especially about the opinions of Frederick Stewart.
(a) Hong Kong Blue Book, 1865, pp. 277 ff.; The Annual Report on the State of the Government Schools for the Year 1865, published by command of the Colonial Secretary, W.T. Mercer, 19th March 1866; Report signed by Frederick Stewart and dated 12th February 1866'.
... If docility and regular attendance are necessary to progress there is nothing left on these points to desire. Nothing can be easier than the maintenance of proper discipline, and the daily attendance will bear fa-vourable comparison with that of any day-school in England .. .
... It was, henceforth, to be no longer optional for a boy [in the Central School] to learn English. Previously, he could read Chinese or English, or both if he chose; and this accounts for the high average of attendance in 1862, the year in which the School was opened. As none were [sic], in future, to be admitted except those who wished to study English the first step necessary was to reduce the numbers — the staff of teachers being then inadequate for the proper instruction of so many.
To secure that attention to Chinese studies which are so apt to be neglected by those who learn English, an Entrance Examination, on the more commonly used elementary books, was made compulsory.44 Boys
44. A cynic with a taste for generalization might comment that the imposition of competi-tive examinations has seemed to be the characteristically Hong Kong cure for most educa-tional ills. To add substance to the charge he could refer back to the introduction of the half-yearly examinations into Government Schools in 1852, as well as forward to the effects of the Secondary Schools Entrance Examination and of the series of public examinations for senior secondary pupils in the twentieth century. It should, however, be noticed that, from about the middle of the nineteenth century, competitive examinations were regarded by liberal opinion in Britain (and in the British Raj in India) as a very preferable alternative to the exercise of privilege, patronage and nepotism.
who passed this examination were to be admitted into the School to read Chinese for a year, after which, on a second examination, they were admitted into the English classes. They were then to devote four hours a day to English and four to Chinese.
.. . On one point I must be candid. Formerly, the reading of the Bible in Chinese formed part of the School routine. During the past year this practice has been departed from. The Chinese masters in the School are not qualified to teach it and I object to reading it with the boys in English, reducing it, as I would thereby be doing, to the level of an ordinary class-book. One of the masters is a professing Christian and might conscien-tiously perform the duty. Another has lately been excluded from the congregation of which he was a member. The third is not a Christian. It was the conduct of the second that determined me, in the meantime, to discontinue the daily lesson. I discovered that he had been in the habit of drawing comparisons between the Bible and the writings of the Chinese sages by no means favourable to the former. Whether this was done from conviction or from perversity I cannot say. It was, however, a sufficient reason for taking the power of future mischief out of his hands. Under these circumstances I cannot, for the present, give that prominence to the reading of the Scriptures by which, as a School in a Christian Colony, it ought perhaps to be characterized.
It affords some grounds for satisfaction that the School is rapidly growing in favour with the Chinese. The employment of another Euro-pean Master thoroughly trained for his duties, the fact of one of the Chinese masters having taken what corresponds to our Bachelor's degree, and the raised standard in Chinese studies, may be enumerated as the chief causes which have tended to produce this result.
.. . I now come to that part of my Report which refers to the Village Schools.
... I began to suspect that the rolls were not marked until the masters were sure that it was too late in the day for my arrival, and that then they were filled up, I have no hesitation in saying, with greater regard to appearance than to truth. On one occasion I found a large attendance given when the master was absent two days on leave. When this was pointed out to him, he answered, without any compunction, that the boys have to watch the School till he should return. Such a state of things was only counteracted when the masters became aware that, in the monthly reports to the Board of Education, I gave only the number — in several cases nothing — which I happened to find present on the days of inspection.
... I should be glad if more could be done for girls in the Colony in the way of giving them a purely Chinese education, as is done at this School [the Government Girls' School in the Upper Bazaar], without turning their heads by teaching them English or any other so-called accomplishment which would give them a distaste for their humbler sphere in life. I could wish to see a male and female School in each of the villages — the master giving instruction in reading and writing during certain hours of the day, and his wife in sewing, knitting and the other things which may be considered necessary in every family. But, I am afraid, it will be many years before this can be accomplished
... I have been led to entertain hopes that the Chinese themselves will soon do something in the matter of female education. At present, the fear of 'kidnapping' prevents many who would otherwise do so from sending their girls to the School in the Upper Bazaar. During the last year six girls were removed on this account. A gambling house was established in the immediate neighbourhood, and parents, knowing the extremities to which frequenters of such places are sometimes reduced, were afraid to allow their daughters to continue at the School. Nearly all those who do attend have some one to guard them in going to and returning from School.
.. . To give any adequate idea of what the education given in these Schools is, except to those who understand something of the language, would be a very difficult task. It would be much easier to say what it is not.
It embraces then, neither History nor Geography, nor Arithmetic, nor the simplest elements of science — subjects which, in the West, are con-sidered so indispensable. There is nothing to gratify the youthful imagi-nation, to cheer the learner in his course, or to explain to him the most ordinary occurrences in his life. These things are beneath the notice and unworthy of the attention of the Chinese Scholar. To repeat the maxims of the ancient sages from memory, to know some thousands of characters, and to write these tastefully is, in six cases out of ten, all that is aimed at. If a boy is able to remain at School for six or eight years he may then be able to explain what he has read or committed to memory, but those who cannot afford to do so must be content to read without understanding. To the majority the language is an end, not a means. It is an accomplishment which may be very showy in the eyes of the Chinese themselves, but which contains within it none of the elements of the useful or of the improving.45
A Chinese Schoolmaster is truly an object of pity. He is simply a drudge. He is expected to be in his desk by six o'clock in the morning and continue there till nearly the same hour in the evening — always ready to teach his scholars when it suits their parents' convenience to send them to him.
... Before any real good can be effected the Chinese must have learnt to appreciate the value of education, and of their own education, such as it
45. Stewart's own italicization of these terms serves to emphasize how consistent his thinking was with that very influential school of Victorian political and social thought in Britain which included the Utilitarians and other Philosophical Radicals and was respon-sible for many of the reforms passed by Parliament. See Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement (London: Longman, 1959), especially pp. 1-2,222-23.
is. Nothing seems to find favour with them which does not bear a market value. Hence the comparative success of the Central School, English being convertible into dollars; hence, also, the neglect of the Vernacular Schools, Chinese being unsaleable.
.. . Whether the Chinese are to continue to enjoy the exclusive privi-lege of a free education or to share it with the European and the Half-Caste is a question which cannot long be deferred; and when one thinks of the number of children in our streets and on the Praya, who are growing up in ignorance and bidding fair to surpass their predecessors in the practice of violence and theft, the suggestion of a member of the late Board of Education that the Colony should possess a Government Refor-matory on an extensive scale must, sooner or later, claim to itself that consideration which it seems to demand. My own impression is that nothing short of an Education Tax and Compulsory Attendance at School will meet the existing evil...
(b) Hong Kong Blue Book, 1866, pp. 279-80; 'Annual Report on the State of Govern-ment Schools in Hongkong, published for general information. By Order,
W.T. Mercer, 6th February 1867; report signed by Frederick Stewart, Head-master and Inspector, 4th February 1867'.
. . . The subjects taught are substantially the same as they were last year. The Irish National School Books and the Translation into English of portions of the Chinese Classics form, with the ordinary branches of all National Schemes of education, the sum and substance of the work.46 Nothing higher has, as yet, been attempted for two very obvious reasons. In the first place, the boys are, ipso facto, dependent on the English Masters for all their instruction. The Chinese Assistants are not competent, even under the closest supervision, to do more than teach the most elementary of subjects. Reading, Translation, Composition, Geography, and all be-yond the simplest rules of Arithmetic if not attended to personally by the English Masters had better not be attempted at all. When it is considered
46. Stewart, like several predecessors and many successors in the Hong Kong teaching profession virtually equates a description of the curriculum with a list of textbooks. Evidence 12 in this chapter below, exemplifies the same tendency to summarize a curriculum simply by naming the textbook used, as do the extracts quoted in Chapter 3 (Evidence 4) from the Rev. S.R. Brown's reports on the Morrison Education Society School, and of course, this approach has administrative attractions. Even in the 1980s, many Hong Kong teachers, if asked what they intend to teach in a particular lesson or week, will reply 'chapter N'! The National Schemes of Education which Stewart also mentions presumably, in addition to the allusion to the Irish scheme, refer either in a very general way to any form of state education or, more specifically, to the arrangements made by the two major voluntary associations for education in Britain (the National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church and the British and Foreign School Society).
225
that last year the scholars in the Upper School numbered eighty six and in the Lower School ninety six it becomes very evident that there is little time left for going on to the more advanced subjects of History, Algebra, and Geometry. The great aim hitherto has been to push on the more intelligent of the boys only as far as shall not be inconsistent with all, except the incorrigible, obtaining a fair average amount of instruction, in other words, not to neglect the many for the benefit of the fewf and until the services of another English Master have been obtained, I see little hope of much being done. Then, in the second place, when boys reach that stage in their progress when they would be capable of appreciating, and profiting by, a more advanced course of instruction they leave school for situations in which they can turn their knowledge of English to practical account. They have not yet learned to consider education as an aim in itself. It is at present, but a means to a particular end, and the minimum amount that can serve their purpose is all that they seek for.48
... In my last Report I stated that I entertained the hope of being soon able to overcome many difficulties connected with the school by training Chinese Assistants for their work. I then anticipated that I should always be able to retain two of the more advanced boys for a period of at least four years, after which they might, if they chose, find employment else-where and be succeeded by the two who stood next to them. The project has all but failed. The demand for the services of the more intelligent of the boys is so great that it is, in the meantime, hopeless to expect them to remain for any length of time. The two in whose case the experiment was tried have both left many months ago, just when they were beginning to be of real value to the school. I shall not, however, abandon the scheme. Out of several it may be possible to retain some; and, as the knowledge of
47.
This attitude might be contrasted with the more openly 'colonialistic' approach which favoured special treatment (including scholarships) for a new native elite encouraged thereby to remain loyal to, and thus consolidate, the colonial power (Philip G. Altbach and Gail P. Kelly (eds.), Education and the Colonial Experience (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1984), pp. 1 ff.). In Hong Kong, scholarships were introduced into the Central School in the 1870s and Government Scholarships were established to enable a few individuals to benefit from education in Britain in 1884. The Report of the Education Committee of 1902 indicates keen interest in the creation of a collaborationist elite. See Chronicle for 1902 and Evidence 16, below, but also note the reaction of the Colonial Office (in Evidence 17).
48.
T.C. Cheng supports this reading of Chinese parents' motivation for education (see Evidence 2 below). Frederick Stewart attributed misunderstandings about the English teaching at the Central School to the 'practical' assumption that children should learn to speak a limited amount of commercial English in as short a time as possible (see Evidence 4(b)). As Bateson Wright's Report of 1904 shows, the pragmatic attitude was seen to have prevailed into the twentieth century. See Chronicle for 1904 and f.n. 39 above. For a basic question about the genesis of the 'pragmatic' approach to education, see Commentary on p. 205 and f.n. 27 above.
English becomes more general and situations more difficult to be ob-tained, the greater will be the probability that these Assistants will remain until, at least, others are qualified to take their place.
His Excellency the Governor has signified his intention of extending the course of study by the introduction of Lectures on the simpler ele-ments of Science — Chemistry, Electricity, and other branches of Natural Philosophy. I trust that, at first, only very modest expectations will be entertained of their success. Considerable difficulty must attend the com-munication of a knowledge of these subjects through the medium of a language in which the scholars are but in their first stages of advance-ment, and for the ordinary nomenclature of which there exist, as yet, no equivalents in Chinese. To this must be added the fact already referred to that the boys leave school by far too early for acquiring a taste for such studies. It must not be supposed that I am throwing difficulties in the way or attempting to exaggerate those that confessedly exist. In every school, where it is possible, more attention should be given to such subjects than is generally done, and the Central School should certainly not be content to remain in ignorance of such branches of knowledge considering the advantages that would arise from their diffusion.491 have thought it right, however, in making reference to the proposal to moderate as far as pos-sible any undue expectations of success. I hope that, at first, the amusement to be derived from the Lectures will be considered as not the least essen-tial reason for their introduction, and that all that is possible to do shall be done to make them, in time, profitable sources of instruction as well.
(c) Hong Kong Blue Book, 1867, pp. 291 ff.; 'Education Report, published by com-mand of the Acting Colonial Secretary, Cecil C. Smith, 14th February 1868; Report signed by Frederick Stewart and dated 22nd January 1868'.
.. . I do not believe that one of the two hundred and odd boys in the [Central] school comes to be educated, in the proper sense of the word.
49. Though Stewart's point is made here in very general terms, it is possible that he is indirectly alluding to the relatively new popularity and high status of Western science and technology in China at this time. Knowledge of this aspect of China's Self-strengthening Movement was soon current in Hong Kong as can be seen, for example, in the article on The Peking Foreign Board on Western Education' which appeared in the China Mail of Friday, 8 March 1867, comprising a 'translation of an important Memorial by the Foreign Board at Peking, relating to the establishment of the proposed School for the study of European sciences, the first memorial upon which subject we recently copied from the Shanghai newspapers'. The importance accorded to this by British officials is reflected in the fact that Sir Richard MacDonnell enclosed a copy of this article in his despatch No. 254 to the Secretary of State for the Colonies of 15 March 1867 (CO 129/121, p. 73). But see also,
T.C. Cheng's views about the motivation of Chinese parents in Hong Kong in the 1860s and 1870s (Evidence 2 below).
Their only aim is to obtain such a knowledge of the English language as
will enable them to get situations which prove more lucrative than any
which they could hope to get without it. I am afraid that, before long, this
will receive too disagreeable a confirmation. Complaints are often made
by boys of the difficulty they now have in getting employment. The popu-
larity of the school, therefore, would thus seem to depend very much, if
not entirely, on the varying prosperity of the Colony, and not on the
nature or amount of real instruction communicated in it.
.. . It is unnecessary, I trust, for me to state that English is carefully excluded from these [village] schools. To the melancholy results which, in nearly every instance, have followed from teaching Chinese girls English I need not more particularly allude. Its effects on the character of the boys is not, I am sorry to find, what one could wish, but on the character of the girls it has proved to be fatal. And the reason seems to be this, that coming, as they nearly all do, from the poorer classes, the care, such as they have never experienced before, which is taken of them, the comforts, to them luxuries, which they enjoy, and the so called accomplishments, which they are taught, totally unfit them for the sphere of life in which they would otherwise naturally remain, and out of which it is impossible for them to rise.
(d) 'Annual Report for 1875', in Hong Kong Government Gazette, 12 February 1876, p. 78.
.. . It were much to be wished that the school hours would be short-ened. They would be long in any climate, and they are especially so here. The point has had much anxious consideration for many years, but it is not possible to make the day shorter than eight hours, without seriously interfering with the progress of the [Central] school. Were there but one language to be taught, half the time would be ample, but with two, the case is different. The aim is to put both languages, English and Chinese, on a footing of perfect equality, as far as that is possible, and not sacrifice the one to the other. At first, the Chinese would have been glad to throw their own language overboard, but'this could not be listened to. The result would have tended to denationalization and the production of a tribe of smatterers utterly useless for interpretation, or, for that matter, for any-thing else. It took much persistence for many years to overcome this reluctance to learning Chinese, but such a thing is never heard of now. Every scholar in the school, one or two of the youngest excepted, has his four hours a day at English and four at Chinese.
2. T.C. Cheng, 'The Education of Overseas Chinese — A Comparative Study of Hong Kong, Singapore and the East Indies', unpublished M.A. thesis, Uni-versity of London, 1949.
The two short quotations from T.C. Cheng's pioneering research may provide readers with valuable cautions.
p.
110: ... One must reiterate here that the Chinese had not been interested, or participated, in these controversies [over secular/religious education in the 1860s and 1870s] — their main concern in sending their children to English schools was to receive a practical education, English being a sesame to a good post and possibly wealth, and not to learn religion.
p.
Ill: ... It may not be inappropriate to point out that the Chinese at this time [1860s] had still no desire for western learning as such. In China it was only after repeated defeats sustained at the hands of the foreign powers that a desire for western learning, mainly science and technology, appeared. In 1885, after the defeat of China by France, mathematics and science were introduced into the public examinations for the first time. In 1898, appeared Chang Chih-tung's 'An Exhortation to Learning' which tried to persuade the Chinese to adopt western learning.
3. Dates and Events (1857-1877) connected with the History of Education in Hong Kong, printed at the St. Lewis Reformatory, 1877.
There need be no apology for another selection from one of the two controversial pamphlets concerning education which were published in 1877. The extracts below offer an impression of the issues involved at the time, especially over the 'religious question', a partial (in the sense of not impartial) view of some of the leading protagonists, as well as a few hints as to the identity of the anonymous author.
p.
16: [Referring to Stewart's Report for 1868] Here he dwells on the secu-lar education, which had been adopted at the Government school in preference to Christian education. 'Christian and secular education, says Mr. Stewart, must for the present, be accepted as two distinct fields of operation in Hong Kong, the Missionary will take his choice, the Govern-ment its choice.' The reason why the secular education has been adopted was the great repugnance which Chinese mind has to religious education. However the system was on trial. 'When schools, he says, where the Bible is read and religious instruction is given, show better results in the future than they have done in the past, objections to secular education will receive a patient hearing.'
p.
22: [referring to Fr. Raimondi's address at the Prize giving of St. Sav-iour's College, 1869] Father Raimondi then mentioned the large number of uneducated children in Hong Kong. He could not help recognizing the fact that if left in ignorance they would be 10,000 more thieves. Three schemes for remedying the evil had been suggested.
1. Compulsory education. 2. Separate schools for the better class. 3. Trade Schools.
These last are recommended by the Very Reverend Father as Chi-nese are eminently a trading people.
pp. 23-24: [quoting from Raimondi's Report of 1871] It is now ten years since the Convent schools were opened; seven since the Reformatory at West Point was set on foot; six years since St. Saviour's College was founded. Looking back on our labours, we have reason to be satisfied with our success. We have here a school where the European children can obtain a sound and practically useful and commercial education. For the Chinese we have an industrial and commercial school. Our seminary opens to every Chinese who wishes it the gate of all knowledge in teach-ing him the Latin language. Of the 76 who during its brief existence have passed through the English classes in this College, 70 have got situations and are all doing well, some in Manila, some in the Coast ports and the re-mainder in Hong Kong. A few of them are getting, at twenty years of age, salaries of over one hundred dollars a month. Our Anglo-Chinese school has turned out about forty young Chinamen, who are all employed well, some at Shanghai, others at Canton and in Hong Kong.
The work of the Reformatory was rather hard having to deal with young ragamuffins. However in these seven years the industrial schools at that useful Institution have been successful. A few of those boys first admitted are there still now as paid assistants and useful aids to us in our work. We are rather proud of them. Fourteen are in good situations in Hong Kong as carpenters, shoemakers and tailors. Of the boys who are at present in the Reformatory not less than 30 are working well and satisfac-torily, 68 others have spent a short time in the Reformatory and have gone away without fully acquiring a trade but we have not heard of any being brought before the Magistrate a second time.
During the ten years the Italian Convent has been opened nearly one hundred girls of good family have received a complete education of the best description. Two hundred Chinese destitute children have been saved from death, and trained up to be useful girls and women. Upwards of three hundred girls over ten years of age have been rescued from misery and fed, clothed and taught. These girls and infants but for the Sisters must have eventually become a charge upon the Colony. About eight girls have been respectfully married.'
pp. 26-27: [referring to correspondence and articles in the China Mail in February, 1872] 'The same newspaper has a leading article on February 22nd of the same year in which the editor corrects a paragraph of a con-temporary with regard to a Pastoral issued by Father Raimondi in which the Very Rev. gentleman had stated the doctrine of the Catholic Church concerning education.
In reference to the criticism which appeared in the Daily Advertiser on the said Pastoral a Correspondent in the China Mail of February 27th writes thus: The article (which appeared in the Daily Advertiser) is not the best calculated to promote harmony between the Head of the Catholic Community and his flock, and the Government and if the Editor of the
D.A. has only this way in his hand to make his party triumph, he has committed a gross mistake in writing the article. When he first wrote that the Pastoral had created great dissatisfaction in the Portuguese Commu-nity, he was ignorant of the fact, that he could not inflict a greater injury on the Portuguese Community than by making that assertion. The Portu-guese Community is proud of being Catholic; and as Catholic cannot be displeased with hearing what the Catholic Bishops, with the sovereign Pontiff,50 in a word, their Church says with regard to education/ The correspondent continues afterwards. 'After all, what has Father Raimondi done? what all the Catholic Bishops do now and again. The Catholic Bishops of Ireland issued a Pastoral in which after having exposed the doctrine of the Church concerning education in stronger terms than it has been done by Father Raimondi they address their flock saying: We must urge upon you to join your Bishops and Clergy in asking our rulers by the right of the constitution to grant us a pure Catholic education'. With concern to the tenor and contents of the Pastoral the correspondent says: 'The Rev. Prefect exposed before his flock what has been taught by the Catholic Church, avoiding reference to any particular school urging only that the decision of the Church shall be complied with; shall not Father Raimondi be free to do his duty?' The doctrine referred to is exposed afterwards: 'The Catholic Bishops with the Sovereign Pontiff have emit-ted their decision grounded on the experience and long study of years and years proving that schools where only secular education is imparted cannot do for Catholic children/ Of the intention of the Father the corre-spondent says: 'He had to explain the doctrine of the Church; he had not the least intention of offending or attacking any body; his duty speaks by himself and he does it/
.28: .. . [In 1872 at] the end of April the question arose on the want of having a school for European middle class, and on the 25th June a general extraordinary meeting took place at the City Hall to discuss it. About 30 people attended it. Sir Arthur Kennedy was present and expressed his idea that if a school should be had, it ought to be a secular one. His Excellency openly declared that he had no earthly sympathy with sectari-
50. An indirect early reference to the doctrine of Papal Infallibility? This doctrine was at least partly a response to the reduction of the Pope's temporal power in Italy brought about by Italian Reunification. One of its corollaries was a more forceful role by the Catholic Church in educational affairs. See also Commentary in this Chapter above.
231
anism. Mr. Francis warmly advocated religious education. Mr. Stewart the Inspector of Government School[s] spoke in favour of the secular. He denied that the education given at the Central School was atheistical but admitted the term Un-Christian. He said that one of his rules was, that the words Protestantism and Catholicism were never to be mentioned in the school. On being asked parenthetically by Mr. Francis how history was taught Mr. Stewart said he only wished to defend himself.51 The meeting ended by appointing a Committee to enquire into the necessity of a school and on which basis it should be conducted.
pp. 30-31: A scheme of grants-in-aid for schools was agreed to in the meeting of the Legislative Council, April 24th [1873], as also was the formation of a Committee, which would take in hand the translation of some of the English books in use at the Irish National Schools into Chi-nese for use in schools that came under this scheme (Mail). The grants-in-aid being given only for results in secular instruction the point occurred, said the Mail, 'what measure, are to be taken to render the teaching in Chinese Schools sufficiently undenominational as to fairly come under the term secular. It must be recollected that the Classics, in fact all native books as yet used in schools under purely native control are not secular but Confucian. It would hence seem that in order to provide suitable works for secular teaching in Chinese, something suitable would have to be selected. Both their style and matter render nearly all works of the novel class objectionable; nor in view of the absurd farrago of supernatu-ral nonsense contained in most of the native historical works, would they be more suitable. It would in fact appear that series of elementary works in good Chinese would have to be composed or translated in order to meet this difficulty. This fact, that Chinese education is not secular be-cause it is not Christian, has been some what oddly overlooked in many quarters, though the Inspector himself has long been conscious of the ne-cessity of such books as we allude to/ (Mail.)
4. Documents related to the language issue in the 1870s.
The arrival of Hennessy as the new Governor of Hong Kong precipitated a number of issues, not least a discussion of language policy. Readers might note that, in pressing the claims of the English language, Hennessy was remaining consistent with his general sympathy for the aspirations of the local Chinese in Hong Kong who were totally convinced of the value of English. They might notice, too, that Hennessy was able to win his way over
51. The glee with which the discomfiture of Stewart (caused by his defeat in repartee by Francis) is reported adds force to the claim that J.J. Francis, himself, a leading Catholic barrister who revelled in debate, was the author of this anonymous pamphlet.
the Education Conference only with the votes of the General in command of the British
Forces, the Colonial Secretary and the Government Surveyor, three votes which all Gover-
nors could normally accept as safe, plus the vote of one very prominent merchant. Two
other merchants and the man in charge of Government schools opposed him. Incidental
information is also provided about classroom conditions in the leading school of Hong
Kong at the time.
(a) Despatch from John Pope Hennessy, Governor of Hong Kong, to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Earl of Carnarvon, 27 January 1878, in CO 129/181, pp. 133 ff.
.. . In referring to a former visit to the Central School I said: 'I visited one large class-room, indeed a sort of double class-room, on the other side of the passage. In that room I should think there must have been about a hundred and fifty Chinese youths who were being instructed by three Chinese teachers. They were reading the Chinese classics. I found that the three Chinese teachers who were instructing them in the Chinese classics had themselves no knowledge whatever of the English language. These three Chinese teachers spoke no English; and of the pupils in that particular class-room not one could speak English. These pupils I was glad to see, were reading the Chinese classics. During the whole year we have had six hundred and ten pupils attending the School. I asked Mr. Stewart this morning how many of these were able to speak English and he said under fifty or sixty, and this small number very imperfectly. Now these are grave facts. They point to that which Mr. Stewart wishes — to the desirability of endeavouring to keep the pupils a little longer in the school. In this English Colony we must not be satisfied with 60 out of 600 being able to speak English in our principal Government School, and that imperfectly...
... The following day Mr. Lowcock, an unofficial member of the Leg-islative Council, said he was always under the impression that the main object of the Government scheme of education in Hongkong was the teaching of English to the Chinese boys: and I find that a similar view is universally held by the European community.
From Chinese shopkeepers and other native residents, I had, for some time past, heard complaints on this subject, and it was partly at their sug-gestion I had especially looked into it. On visiting the Government village schools I could not find a single Government Teacher who spoke English. In those schools the English speaking standard is even lower than I found in the Central School.
I attach no blame to Mr. Stewart or to any one else for this result. Mr. May the Senior Police Magistrate and other old residents of Hongkong tell me that the Chinese Youth of the Colony were better instructed in English fifteen years ago than at present. I know that the Chinese traders are most anxious to see some reform made in the Government system by which
their children would be taught English; and what I saw in the schools for Chinese in Singapore convinces me that there is no insuperable difficulty in teaching English to Chinese boys.
.. . In the enclosed account of the proceedings at the Central School your Lordship will see that in addition to the vital question of the failure of the Government scheme of Education as regards the teaching of English to the Chinese, I touched on some minor points such as the desirability of forming a Medical School for the Chinese,52 and the necessity of comply-ing with Mr. Stewart's long expressed wish of being relieved of the duties of Head Master at the Central School...
(b) From a letter by Frederick Stewart to Robert G.W. Herbert (Colonial Office), 15 November 1878, in CO 129/183, p. 364.
.. . I am aware that there are Chinese residents who are exacting on this point [pupils' ability to speak English], and that there are schools in the Colony where young men are taught colloquial English by rote from a phrase-book, without any training in the language, and it is probably this that Mr. Hennessy refers to when he says that the Chinese share the general dissatisfaction with the [Central] school. This opinion on the part of some members of the native community is due to an idea that English is very easily acquired, and that the possession of a few phrases for business purposes is all the English that anyone absolutely requires.
Feeling that I had a higher duty to discharge, namely, to impart a sound education to the youth of the Colony, I have always been averse to
52. Hennessy's speech was published in the Hong Kong Government Gazette of 26 January 1878, pp. 25-30. Towards the end of the speech, he remarked that, while perusing a list of employments taken up by school-leavers, he had noticed that one ex-student from the Central School had become a medical student but that this student was not Chinese. Hennessy added: 'this brings me to a suggestion I have to make to Mr. STEWART. I should like very much to ask Mr. STEWART whether it might be possible in connection with this school to do anything in the way of promoting medical education among the Chinese. (Applause.) We all know that there is in this Colony a large and excellent institution called the Tung Wah Hospital, supported and managed by the leading Chinese residents. Can we in any way combine clinical teaching which might be received in that establishment with a little instruction in physiology in this school? Will it be possible for Mr. STEWART, having consulted with the Colonial Surgeon and with some of our medical friends and the commit-tee of that institution, will it be possible, I say, for Mr. STEWART to form a scheme by which we might have some young Chinese trained to a knowledge of European medicine? If he succeeds in putting a plan, a practical plan, before me, I certainly will consult my honour-able friends on the Council as to providing funds for carrying it into effect/ As the Chronicle for 1887 and Evidence 9 below indicate, this suggestion was soon to be taken up, though not by Stewart and not in conjunction with the Tung Wah Hospital or the Govern-ment Central School. See also, Evidence 18 and f.n. 57.
mere parrot-work, but I have never therefore ignored the value of English speaking on the part of the boys.
(c)
Resolutions of the Education Conference, 25 February 1878, in Hong Kong Government Gazette, 9 March 1878, p. 90.
I.
That the primary object to be borne in view by the Government should be the teaching of English.
II. That to enable the Central School to give more time to English and less time to Chinese studies, without materially diminishing the amount of Chinese knowledge on the part of the scholars on leaving the School, the preliminary requirements in Chinese knowledge should be raised in the case of all such candidates for admission as do not already speak English fairly fluently to the requirements of Standard IV of Class I of the Grant-in-Aid Schedule (with the exception of Geography).
III. That five hours be given every day (except Saturdays) to English and two and a half to Chinese studies, but with the understanding that all English lessons will be obligatory, and all Chinese lessons optional, ac-cording to the declaration on the part of the parents.
The above resolutions were arrived at without a division, with the exception of that portion of the latter which makes the study of Chinese optional on the declaration of the parents. On that point, the voting was as
follows:
For making Chinese optional For making Chinese compulsory
The Hon. Col. Commanding the The Hon. P. Ryrie
Troops The Hon. H. Lowcock
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary Mr. Stewart
The Hon. J.M. Price
The Hon. F.B. Johnson.
5. Observations about females in Hong Kong society.
As earlier comments, chronicle entries and samples of evidence will have indicated, the position of women in Hong Kong society (at least partly because of their relative scarcity) was a controversial one, and this affected educational provision and treatment. The ex-tracts from the two documents presented below do not merely represent different opinions or contrasting perspectives on facts. They also have significance because they led to changes. As the Chronicle for 1878 suggests, it was partly as a reaction to the public interest created by the allegations from the Chief Justice, Sir John Smale, that the Po Leung Kuk was formed. Eitel retained his interest in the education of girls and was largely responsible for the establishment of the first substantial Government School for Girls later.
(a)
The Hon. Sir John Smale, Chief Justice, to the Colonial Secretary, 20 October 1879, in the Hong Kong Government Gazette, 4 February 1880, pp. 116 ff.
. .\ No-one can walk through some of the bye streets in this Colony without seeing well-dressed Chinese girls in great numbers whose occu-pations are self-proclaimed, or pass those streets, or go into the schools in this Colony, without counting beautiful children by the hundred whose Eurasian origin is self-declared. If the Government would enquire into the present condition of these classes, and, still more, into what become of these women and their children of the past, I believe that it will be found that in the great majority of cases the women have sunk into misery, and that of the children the girls that have survived have been sold to the profession of their mothers, and that if boys they have been lost sight of or have sunk into the condition of the mean whites of the late slave holding states of America ...
(b)
Minute by Dr E.J. Eitel, 1 November, 1879, in Hong Kong Government Gazette, 4 February 1880, pp. 117 ff.
.. . The women kept by foreigners in Hongkong are, as a rule, rather raised in their own esteem by the connection, of the immorality of which they have no idea; they are also, as a rule, better off than the concubines of Chinese well-to-do merchants; they are generally provided for by the foreigners who kept them, when the connection is severed, and at any rate these women are as a rule thrifty, and always manage to save money which they invest in Bank deposits, also in house property, but princi-pally in buying female infants whom they rear for sale to or concubinage with foreigners, by which they generally gain a competency in about 10 years.
The children of these women are invariably sent to school. In fact these women understand the value of education and prize it far more than respectable Chinese women do. The boys are invariably sent to the Government Central School where they generally distinguish themselves, and as a rule these boys obtain good situations in Hongkong, in the open ports and abroad. The girls crowd into the schools kept by the Missionary Societies. These children are generally provided with a small patrimony by their putative fathers. They dress almost invariably in Chinese cos-tume and adopt Chinese customs, unless they are taken up by ill-advised agents of foreign charity. I am quite positive, as far as my experience and the information I have received from many gentlemen in the best position to judge goes, that they do not in any way resemble the mean whites in the Southern States of America.
I regret I have to contradict so flatly on this point the statement of His Lordship the Chief Justice which is in my opinion based on insufficient information, but justice and truth demand it.
6. Speech by Ng Choy53 at the Legislative Council, 10 September, 1880, in CO 129/189, p. 484.
Ng Choy had been appointed as the first Chinese member of the Legislative Council by Sir John Pope Hennessy on 22 January 1880, to the chagrin of some leading Europeans. The dispute over separate, ethnically-based admission to the City Hall Museum was, thus, not merely a policy question concerning informal educational opportunities in Hong Kong at the time or even simply another example of an incipient racism bred, perhaps, by a colonialdst) regime. It was also an occasion for Ng Choy to demonstrate that he was a sensitive representative of educated Chinese opinion and, at the same time, remain loyal to the Governor, who had elevated him and who was himself in virtually constant dispute with the European merchants mainly over his pro-Chinese stance.
. . . Now the notice put up at the door of the [City Hall] Museum, modified as it was, was to this effect, that the forenoon was set apart for the Chinese and the afternoon for those persons who were not Chinese. And at the end of the notice there was this proviso, — that any respectably dressed and well-behaved person could gain admission to the Museum at any time on application to the Curator or person in charge. He would ask, since any respectably dressed person could visit the Museum, what necessity there was to retain the distinction of nationality? Although the matter was not practically of much importance, he considered a great principle was involved in the question. He had been abroad, and while there he had visited many public institutions, but he had never seen such a notice as this. The reason the City Hall Committee gave for making that distinction, was to prevent a collision between the lower class of Chinese and the corresponding class of other nations. But in the Public Gardens, which were open to all alike, without distinction of nationality, he had
53. Ng Choy, also known as Wu Ting-fang, was educated at St. Paul's College and after an interval of thirteen years working as an interpreter in the Magistrate's Court in Hong Kong, studied law at Lincoln's Inn, London. He returned to Hong Kong to practise law as the first Chinese to be qualified as a barrister and was later appointed a magistrate. In 1880, Governor Hennessy appointed him as the first Chinese member of the Legislative Council to fill a temporary vacancy. He resigned in 1882 to enter the service of Imperial China by joining the staff of Viceroy Li Hung-chang at Tientsin. He became very actively involved in a range of programmes aimed to modernize China, was made Chinese Ambassador to the United States in 1897, and continued to hold posts of responsibility both in the late Qing period and in the early years of the Republic, until his death in 1922. See Carl Smith, op. cit.,
p. 132, and Ng Lun Ngai-ha, op. cit., pp. 132-33.
237
never heard there had been a row between Chinese and Europeans. But if the principle of class distinction was to prevail, where was it to end? It might apply to the Public Gardens and other public places of this Colony; nay, you might as well apply it to the public roads, by setting apart one side for the Chinese and the other for Europeans. He thought, therefore, there was no valid excuse for drawing the distinction in the Museum notice. It had been said that the Chinese had never objected to the notice. But that was not true, because the Chinese did complain bitterly about it. If reference were made to the Chinese newspapers, it would be seen that articles had been written bitterly complaining of the invidious notice. As he said before, the matter involved a great principle, and he would venture to ask the honourable member on his right (Mr. KESWICK) and the members of the City Hall [Committee], if they would like to see such a notice put up, supposing they themselves were Chinese. If they did not, then why did they put such restrictions on the Chinese? He was sorry if he said anything that might hurt the feelings of any member of the community but he deemed that, sitting as the member representing the Chinese community, it was his duty to make the remarks he had made, and he would not be worthy of the seat he had the honour to occupy if he did not speak out what he conceived to be right and say what he thought he ought to say. (Applause).
7. 'Report of the Education Commission appointed by His Excellency Sir John Pope Hennessy, K.C.M.G. .. . to consider certain questions connected with Education in Hong Kong 1882'.
The Chronicle for 1880-82 should make clear what Hennessy''s own intentions were.
The Commission certainly did not report until after his final departure from Hong Kong.
The extracts from its Report presented below give some impression of the principal issues
debated, the opinions of some of the protagonists and the main conclusions, which were
accepted with some alacrity by the Colonial Office in London (Illus. 4.1).
From evidence given to the Commissioners:
Bishop Burdon: I have had experience of Chinese teachers, and my experience generally has been that they are not very efficient, in con-sequence of not being thoroughly conversant with English and not being thoroughly trained ...
Attorney-General: Reading English, writing English, Arithmetic in Eng-lish, and reading a Chinese book such as you describe (i.e., a very simple one), and making out a Chinese washing bill, or housebill, or
RTCPOPvT
Having1 considered the questions submitted to us in this Commission, and taken evidence thereon, we have arrived at the following conclusions :
1.
The five new Government Schools that are proposed to be built could not take the place of the Central School, except at a greatly increased cost, and without the results that are to be obtained by the organization and discipline which are possible in a large and well-conducted school.
2.
The proposed new schools could not give an elementary education equal to that now given at the Central School, unless they had each a European Head-master with qualified native assistants. Apart from the cost of the sites, most of which would have to be purchased, unless they were selected in the higher, and therefore very inconvenient parts of the city, the school premises could not be erected for the sum of $2,000 each, as was intended when the schools were first proposed. A sum of from $10,000 to $12,000 at least would be necessary for the erection of each of the schools; and the annual expen-diture on each of them, for salaries and contingencies alone, could not be less than $3,300.
3.
While granting that a Collegiate Institution would be of great benefit to the Colony in placing at the disposal of many of the Chinese an opportunity of obtaining a higher education than the Central School is likely to give for at least many years to come, we are of opinion that, while the public funds to be devoted to educational purposes are limited, and while the great need of the majority of the population is a sound elementary education, it is not the province of the Government to establish, at the cost of the rate-payers, an Institution that would be mainly for the advantage of the wealthier members of the community. Such an Institution, under Government control, could not possibly be made self-supporting. If provided with an efficient staff of masters and all proper appli-ances, there would remain, after the payment of the highest fees which the students could afford, the necessity of a very large annual subsidy from the Government.
4.
It seems to us that the most advantageous employment of the public funds would be the development of the Central School on its present basis. For this purpose a new building and a larger staff of masters are indispensable.
5.
In addition to the Central School thus improved, it would be of great advantage to the Colony to have five new schools on the scale originally proposed. Each of these should have a trained native master for the teaching of English, and a well-educated Chinese master for the teaching of Chinese. They could not, however, be built for $2,000 each. Probably double that sum would be required.
6.
To secure trained native masters for the Central School and the other Govern-ment Schools, a separate Normal School is not required. When the Central School has been put on a proper footing, the Head-master will be able to make all necessary arrange-ments for the training of the limited number of teachers required for the various schools in the Colony.
7.
To secure more time for, and greater efficiency in., the study of English in the Central School, it is essential that great attention should be paid by the scholars to the study of Chinese during the earlier years of their attendance. For this purpose there should be an Upper and a Lower School. In the latter, Chinese should go hand in hand with English, and about the same amount of time should be devoted to each. For passing from the Lower to the Upper School, there should be a stringent examination, and no Chinese boy should be admitted to the Upper School, until he is considered by the examiners
Illus. 4.1 'Report of the Education Commission appointed by His Excellency Sir John Pope Hennssy, K.CM.G. .. . to consider certain questions con-nected with Education in Hong Kong 1882'.
to have obtained a competent knowledge of his own language. When this has been attained, the translation lessons in the Upper School would prevent any neglect of Chinese which might arise, when the ordinary lessons in that language ceased to be taught.
8.
fn the Upper School the time saved from the learning of the Chinese language should be devoted to scientific subjects; and, with this end in view, the study of mathe-matics, chemistry, etc., should be restored, the object of the school being not merely the training of the boys in English, but the imparting to them of a sound and liberal education.
9.
While not considering it necessary to enter into details which the Inspector of Schools on the one hand and the Head-master of the Central School on the other are best qualified to suggest, we desire to invite attention to two points in connection with the Central School which we deem of the utmost importance. The first of these is the necessity that exists for more masters throughout the school, particularly so in the lower classes, and still more so in the Chinese classes. One of the most serious defects of the school, as testified to both by masters and former scholars, has arisen from the limited number of Chinese masters hitherto employed. These, although well-educated men in their own language, and most of them graduates, do not know how to teach on scientific principles, and are incapable of maintaining proper discipline among large numbers. It will be some time before they can be replaced by well-trained men; but, until that time comes, it is essential that they should have classes of very moderate size. The second point is the great desirability, when the school is organized as we have proposed, of" devoting all the time in the Upper School that the Head-master and his assistants can command, to imparting a thorough knowledge of the English language and the more important branches of Western Science.
FREDERICK STEWART,
Chairman.
EDWARD L. O'MALLEY.
P. RYRIE.
F. BULKELEY JOHNSON. Hongkong, 15th September, 1882.
I agree to the above Report with the exception of Clause 7. The English and Chinese languages are so essentially different that the acquisition of both of them simultaneously by scholars at schools is a task of very great difficulty and labour. Hence it is that the boys who are instructed in both are found naturally to devote their chief application to the one language which is either more suitable to their individual tastes or which will be, from their stand-point of view, more useful in their future career, and bestow very little attention to the study of the other—thus the time set apart for the learning of the language neglected by the boys is practically so much time wasted. To obviate this waste of time, I would suggest that the whole attention of the boys at the Central School should be confined to the study of English, and that every Chinese boy before admission thereto should be found to possess a competent knowledge of his own language.
NG CHOY.
18th September. 1882.
Illus. 4.1 (Continued)
something of that sort, and to be able to speak English for practical purposes — that is what a boy at the Central School can do after six years?
Mr. Falconer (Acting Headmaster): Yes.
Ng Choy: In Chinese Schools the first three years are devoted simply to repeating from books without knowing the meaning of one character. They know the sound, but as to meaning they are quite at sea .. .
8. Life in a nineteenth century school.
(a) A school timetable, from W.T. Featherstone, The Diocesan Boys School and Orphanage, Hongkong: The History and Records, 1869-1929 (Hong Kong: Ye Olde Printerie, Ltd., 1930), pp. 122-23 (Illus. 4.2).
'English School' and 'Chinese School' are rather broad headings, but the timetables presented here may provide some impression of the organization of the school day in a leading Western-style, but non-government, school in the early 1870s.
(b) School Rules, from a series of articles in the South China Morning Post, entitled 'Old Hong Kong', by 'Colonial' (or Jarrett'), June 17 1933-April 1935, bound and rearranged alphabetically by subject, Vol. IV, R-Y, p. 927.
The provenance of the evidence presented below about school-lore (and law) is quite clear, if rather tortuous. A respected 'old boy' bothered to send to the editors of his old school magazine noteworthy, perhaps 'amusing', information about life in the school nearly fifty years before and this information was given wider circulation by an interested local antiquarian.54
I also find the following in the current Yellow Dragon,55 relating to Queen's College of old. The journal states:
54.
This description of 'Jarrett' or 'Colonial' is not intended as contemptuous disparage-ment, but as a statement of fact. The articles on 'Old Hong Kong' contain many fascinating nuggets of information, but they are different in tone and intention from the works, say, of Endacott, Sayer, Eitel or even Tarrant, who were attempting to provide the analysis typical of an historian. 'Colonial' was much nearer to being a snapper up (as collector, preserver and disseminator) of 'ill-considered trifles' and his enthusiastic but amateurish approach led him into such errors as confusing Hanlon's Victoria English School with Bateson Wright's Victoria College. See f.n. 31 above.
55.
The Yellow Dragon, or Wong Lung Po, Queen's College Magazine, was first published in
Table Showing Distribution of Time at "The Diocesan Home and Orphanage."
SUNDAY
MONDAY -J
TUESDAY
WEDNESDAY
THURSDAY ... .
FRIDAY
SATURDAY
From 6 to 7.30 a.m.
-
Walking out, as an exercise for
' health.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
-
BOYS (Crown) 16th May, 1871.
From From From ! From From From ' From
8 to 8 30 9 a.m. to 1 to 1.30 2 to 4 4 to 6 30 6.30 to 7 7 to 9 REMARKS
a.m. 12.30 p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m p.m.
Breakfast Cathedral Dinner Learning Scrip: Text^- Cathedral Prayers Texts, etc.
V Do. English School Do. Chinese School Play, etc. Tea Preparing Lesions for next day
Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do.
Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. The younger bo>s have the same distribution up to 7 p.m. when they are sent to bed.
Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do.
Do. Do. Do. Do. Church Practice Do. Do.
Do. Do. 11 0 L I DAY Do. ~
-
EDUCATION IN HONG KONG -PRE-1841 TO 1941
The younger girls 1 are same as younger boys with the exception of Tuesday and Thursday afternoons when they attend Mrs. Arthur s Sewing Glass.
_ o 2 i-< ‧ O o S &￡d 1 1 "3 SPaa2*3:3 *88 2P 6 P d P d P i 1 o
8-8 a- 1 toCk &0 as ^ P d P d P d P 5P. § ° S °
t>. g3 o 60a. ‧ ￡-8i. aa lO *.o o a^ -o o fl I 1 | be .2-o ‧SO￡ * *>*nfl 50<."3||2*5 ' 2 o o, * o ￡ - bo ‧S* ￡ s^ o *2 ‧-1 ^5 a
R c a~* C S3￡S d u OJ P oP o P d P d P d p d P 9
j a Sri & g C o ‧a c PS-** * 00 _ o c o ^, <8 2M ‧￡‧3 -EL 2fl-OH 0 Q 2P^_A_ ^ o " oP o P d P d P d P d p d P 1 d P
c i^a ￡5. < Pfcfc>00 PfcO& H 05 H ￡> H i* — 123 —
243
We thank Mr. M.K. Lo for sending us a booklet entitled 'Rules of the Government Central School, Hongkong7, dated 1887 and signed by Dr.
G.H. Bateson Wright: it was found among the papers of the late Mr. Lo Cheung-siu and will be placed with the School Records. A few extracts will no doubt interest (and amuse) the present generation:
Fines —-2 cents for Spilling Ink, 5 cents for Spitting in Class Room, 5 cents for clearing throat with offensive noises, 5 cents for bringing flowers with overpowering odour, as Horn Siu Fa, into school, 5 cents for dirty face or hands or unshaven head, 50 cents for smoking.
School hours — 6.30-8.00 a.m., Chinese Classes 4,5,6; 9.00-1.30 p.m. Eng-lish School, all classes; 2.30-4.30 p.m. Chinese Classes, 1,2,3.
Half Holidays — Horse Races in February; Boat Races in December. Corporal punishment by pulling the queue is not allowed.
Boys are required to come to school in shoes and stockings.
Boys' heads must be shaved (unless they are in mourning or suffering from a cold) when they come to school on Mondays.
During the wet season, boys in very wet clothes must be sent home to change them. It will be generally observed that except in very bad weather, studious boys manage to keep dry, starting from home a little earlier or later than usual to escape showers...
(c) A guidebook view of schools in Hong Kong, 1893.56
The following extract is from what the Hong Kong Government Gazette described as Kelly and Walsh's Handbook to Hong Kong. The company of Kelly and Walsh was a successful bookshop and publisher. The author, whose name does not appear on the title page was Bruce Shepherd. As Lethbridge notes, 'there were two Bruce Shepherds in Hong
June 1899, taking its name from the flag of China at the time, which was a dragon on a yellow background. Though its claim to be 'absolutely the first Anglo-Chinese School Magazine that has ever been started in this world' was soon rebutted in favour of the ten-year old St. John's Echo in Shanghai, and was contested by St. Joseph's College, Hong Kong (see Chronicle for 1881 above), it received widespread notice. The London newspaper, The Sketch, reproduced its cover and reviews of its contents were said to have appeared in several continents. For further details, see Gwenneth Stokes, op. cit., pp. 66 ff. and Gwen-neth & John St Stpkes, op. cit., pp. 41-42.
56. In The Hong Kong Guide 1893, with an Introduction by H.J. Lethbridge (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 80-81.
Kong at that time. The first was Librarian to the Supreme Court; the other was Clerk of the
Deed Registry at the same institution. Both had lived in the Colony for over a decade.. /
The brief section in the Guide on Schools offers evidence about the span of knowledge possessed by Europeans about the provision of education in Hong Kong towards the end of the nineteenth century. Readers may note that no mention is made of Chinese schools.
Schools
The subject of education, particularly the education of the Chinese, has received great attention from the Government and large sums of money are annually spent in Government grants.
Victoria College. — This is a Government school for instruction in English and Chinese. The number of scholars in about 1,000, the large majority of whom are Chinese. The fees range from $1 to $3 per month for each boy, but the greater proportion of the cost of keeping up the college and staff is borne by the Government. The handsome college buildings are situated above the Hollywood Road, in the central and Chinese por-tion of the city. The college, which has superseded the old "Central School," was opened on the 10th July, 1889.
St. Joseph's (Roman Catholic) College. — This is a large and handsome
building above the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the principal entrance is from Robinson Road. A large number of Portuguese children are edu-cated at this establishment, which is under the management of the Chris-tian Brothers.
The Diocesan Home and Orphanage is situated just below the Bonham Road in the western portion of the city. This school is principally for the care and education of Eurasians. It belongs to the Church of England and is managed by a committee, of which the Right Rev. Bishop Burdon, Bishop of Victoria, is Chairman.
St. Paul's College is a neat and attractive-looking building at College Gardens where Glenealy commences. It comprises a school for Chinese, under the management of Bishop Burdon.
There are many other schools in the Colony belonging to the Govern-ment and to the various mission and educational bodies, including the French Convent, situated in Queen's Road East, and the Italian Convent in Caine Road.
9. Inaugural Address by Dr Patrick Manson, Dean of the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, at the City Hall, 1 October 1887, cited in Lo Hsiang-
Lin, Hong Kong and Western Cultures, pp. 157-61.
Manson's speech provides clear, if not very exciting, evidence about the official objectives of the founders of the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. As is frequently noted, this was a precursor of the University of Hong Kong. It was related
245
rather more closely to the missionary movement than it was to the earlier ideas of co-operation with the Tung Wah Hospital and the Central School advanced by Hennessy. Readers may wish to examine the extract for its implicit assumptions.
The Senatus of the Hong Kong College of Medicine for the Chinese has asked you to meet us for these reasons: (a) that we may announce the fact that a school of medicine has been established in Hong Kong; (b) that we may have an opportunity of explaining to those interested in such matters as the object, constitution, and plans of the school; and (c) that we may enlist your sympathy and, at the same time, gain through you, publicity for what we believe is an important movement.
In virtue of my office as Dean of the College, I am spokesman for my colleagues.
Although Hong Kong has been a Crown Colony since 1841, and its population and prosperity have steadily and rapidly increased; and al-though hospitals for the treatment of the Chinese have for years been established and are flourishing in nearly all the Treaty Ports and in [m]any other towns of the Empire, yet, in Hong Kong, which ought to be the centre of light and guidance to China in all matters pertaining to civilization, it was not until this year that a Hospital devoted to the treatment of Chinese on Foreign (i.e. European) principles was opened. It is true that before this there were hospitals of a sort. But the Tung Wah Hospital, according to European notions of what a hospital ought to be, is not up to a proper standard, and is, by its constitution and the spirit of many of its directors and supporters, closed to European methods of cure and administration, and the Government Civil Hospital, besides having associations of a kind not pleasing or attractive to the native mind, is too rigidly foreign (i.e. European) in its ways and discipline to suit the great majority of the sick Chinese. Attempts have been made from time to time to supply what was felt to be a public want, but it was not until February this year that they were consummated. As soon as the Alice Memorial Hospital was opened, its erection received its justification; the beds were at once filled, and crowds of out-patients came for treatment. Its success was established within a month of its being opened. In this Hospital the care of the sick devolves on four of the civil practitioners of the town, on a native house-surgeon, and on a staff of dressers or students. To qualify the latter properly to discharge their duties, they require a certain amount of teaching. If we have to teach a few we may as well teach a larger number. The same staff and time will do for sixty as is required for six. Hence has arisen the idea of forming a school of medicine within this Hospital, with these medical men and these students or dressers for a nucleus. The practice of the Hospital is amply sufficient for educational purposes; but as the task of teaching medicine and the associated sciences would be too much for four men, who have other duties to attend to, they have associated with them other teachers, each of whom has a special
subject to attend to, one which his previous training and his tastes qualify him to teach.
In order to enable them to receive instruction in English, a prelimi-nary knowledge of that language is demanded of the students. In this respect most of them have qualified in the Government Central School. There appears to be little difficulty in getting students; they were already numerous enough to form a respectable sized class. After four or more years' course of study those who come up to a certain standard of profi-ciency, as tested in written and oral examinations, will receive the licence or certificate of the College qualifying them to practise in its name. The government of the College will be carried on by the Rector, who hereafter is to be elected annually by the students; a General Council of all teachers and graduates (or as many of them as possible), who will meet once a year to discuss and decide matters of general interest affecting the College; a Senatus composed of the whole of the teaching staff, which will arrange the curriculum and the details of the teaching plans; and a Court, com-posed of the Rector, a representative of the Senatus, a representative of the Alice Memorial Hospital, the standing legal Council of the College, the Dean and a Secretary: these six will form the executive.
Such, then, briefly, is the origin and constitution of the College. The object of it, of course, is the spread of medical science in China, the relief of suffering, the prolongation of life, and, as far as hygiene can effect this, the increase of comfort during life ...
We — the Senatus — think, and I trust you and the public generally will agree with us, that the present is the opportunity for Hong Kong to take up a manifest and long-neglected duty; to become a centre and distributor, not for merchandise only, but also for science. I do not doubt our ultimate success, and when we succeed we shall not only confer a boon on China, but at the same time add to the material prosperity of this Colony. For with a large and successful school or college, such as we see in our mind's eye, other things follow. There is many a town in Europe which lives and flourishes entirely in consequence of its being an educa-tional centre, and that, centuries after the commercial or political reasons for its existence have passed away. I do not suppose the sceptre of com-merce will ever pass from Hong Kong, but her importance and her glory will be greatly enhanced when she becomes a centre for science and letters. He who gives is blessed as well as he who gets. Hong Kong may give science and China may get it; but depend on it the receiver will not fail to recompense the donor in many ways and many fold .. .
No matter how we set about it, our task is one of immense difficulty, and unless I had a thorough faith in the science and art we are to teach, and in its ultimate triumph, I, for one, would not be on the staff of this College of Medicine. Other considerations, too, encourage us and beckon us on. Medicine might be called the mother of the sciences; from her have sprung Anatomy, Physiology, Botany and Biological Science in general; besides much of Chemistry and a host of subsidiary sciences. As these followed her in Europe, so will they follow her in China. It would be hopeless to introduce them on their own merits, but they can be smuggled in with medicine. Now, medicine has opportunities to spread and adver-tise itself to those others, and when she enters she will bring them with her...
However, this may be, it appears to us that the duty that at present lies next to our hands is a matter of the spread of European Medical Science.571 have described, very lamely I fear, the origin of the movement, our plans, our objects, and our hopes. There is yet one other thing I would allude to before I sit down. We have students, we have teachers, we have an organization, and we have a name, but as yet we are, I am sorry to say, without a local habitation. Very soon, classrooms, laboratories, museums and libraries will be required; this means a large building and endow-ment ...
10. Letter, No. 41, from Dr E.J. Eitel to the Colonial Secretary, 5 July 1889, in CO 129/342, pp. 80 ff.
Eitel's arguments might be compared with his earlier riposte to Sir John Smale, as well as to Frederick Stewart's concern about the effects of the teaching of English on girls and the even earlier typically missionary interest in female education5*
I have the honour formally to recommend that the Government take steps to establish a Girls' School intended to give an English education to girls of all classes, on the principles of the present Government Central School (for boys) and that measures be taken at once to start such a School on 1st March, 1890.
In former Educational Reports and especially in my Report for 1888 (paragraph 10), I pointed out that a vast majority of the children in Hongkong who remain uneducated (over 8,000 in number) are girls, that female education as a whole is still in a very backward condition in the Colony, that a good deal has been done indeed to put a purely Chinese education within the reach of Chinese girls, that the Roman Catholic Missions are providing an English education for girls of their own de-nomination, but that hardly anything has hitherto been done for the girls of non-Catholic classes to offer them that sort of English or Anglo-Chinese education which during the last 25 years has been, with annually increas-ing liberality, provided for boys, by the Government Central School and
57.
Quite an early version of the 'White Man's Burden'? See also Evidence 18(d) for a later, but explicit, reference to the concept.
58.
For example, see Evidence 7(d) and (e) in Chapter 1.
by about a dozen similar institutions, and finally that there is no prospect of private effort coming forward to supply this pressing deficiency in the sphere of female education.
The girls for whose benefit I desire the Government to provide an English education may be said to belong principally to the very class of people who send their boys to the Government Central School, that is to say Chinese (about 90 per cent.), European (about 4 per cent.), Indian (about 3 per cent.) and Eurasian (about 3 per cent.) Virtually, I may say, the girls whom I expect eventually to attend the proposed Government Girls' School are the sisters of the 600 boys now attending the Govern-ment Central School. Other classes may indeed send their daughters to the proposed School, but such an extra contingent will be an extremely small minority.
Among the objections raised against the plan of offering to girls, some 93 per cent of whom are of Chinese or Eurasian extraction, an English education, it has been urged that the local system of concubinage would only be fostered by providing Chinese or Eurasian girls with an English education. This objection has hitherto has special weight with the public for the reason that the Ladies' Committee (under the late Bishop SMITH), which started the Diocesan Female Training School in 1862, found itself compelled in 1865 to close the School on the ground that almost every one of the girls, taught English in that School, became on leaving school, the kept mistress of foreigners. But the circumstances surrounding this Girls' School problem have undergone a very considerable alteration since 1865. In those days, the girls drifting into concubinage had no opportunity to learn that smattering of English colloquial which they require for their purposes, and consequently they crowded into the Diocesan School in 1862 which at that time could hardly get girls of any other class. At the present day there are numerous little evening Schools scattered over the Colony where these girls can learn what little English they require, whilst all existing Girls' Schools have as many applicants as they can accommo-date, and public opinion is now strong enough in these Schools to frown out any open supporters of immorality. A second change, which has taken place with reference to this class of people, consists in the fact that Chinese girls are not now as formerly the only class furnishing concu-bines for foreigners, but are in fact now sinking into a minority as Japa-nese girls are crowding them out of favour. As regards the Eurasian girls, the offspring of these illicit connections, a most important change has of late taken place, in that these girls, who formerly used to become concu-bines in turn, are now commonly brought up respectably and married to Chinese husbands who themselves have received an English education in the local Boys' Schools. I am therefore convinced that there is not the slightest danger of the experience of Bishop SMITH'S Committee of 1865 being repeated in the case of the proposed Government Girls' School. I have remarked above that the girls whom I expect to attend the proposed
249
School are, practically speaking, the sisters of the boys now attending the Government Central School, and I am certain that now-a-days hardly any of the boys of that School have sisters who are, or ever will be, the kept mistresses of foreigners ...
. . . Now here in Hongkong, where for twenty-seven years the Gov-ernment has annually spent ever increasing sums of money to give Chi-nese boys an English education, wondering all the time why this continu-ous teaching of English produces so little visible effect in the direction of spreading the knowledge of the English language in the Colony, and why in many cases the giving of an English education to Chinese boys appears eventually to deteriorate rather than to improve their morals, the Govern-ment have, by excluding Chinese girls from the onward movement of English education in the Colony, systematically widened the gulf separat-ing men and women, and, by leaving the men brought up with a knowl-edge of English to marry wives devoid of that knowledge, methodically prevented the spread of the English language in Chinese families. I do not mean to say that the deterioration in morals, which has been observed in Chinese youths who received an English education, is entirely or largely due to the neglect of giving Chinese girls also an English education. There are other causes at work with which I have nothing to do here. But what I mean to say is, that the giving of an English education to Chinese boys only, and not to girls likewise, has naturally contributed to deteriorate the relative position and moral influence of women in the Chinese social organism as represented in Hongkong. I have repeatedly heard Chinese mothers, whose sons were educated at the Central School and subse-quently sent to England or Scotland to finish their education, that their education gave them a contempt for un-educated Chinese women and that only in exceptional cases Chinese girls could be found who would be fit help-mates for them in domestic and conjugal respects.59
In educational matters the case of Hongkong is on all fours with the case of India, and therefore the educational principles and methods, which in the course of the last thirty-five years have commended themselves as practically sound and beneficial to the Government of India, deserve every attention in shaping the educational policy of the Hongkong Gov-ernment. In 1854 the education of the whole people of India (excluding no one class) was definitely accepted as a State duty60 and the famous Despatch
59.
Eitel may well have been thinking of such prominent Chinese leaders as Ho Kai (educated at the Central School, Aberdeen University and Lincoln's Inn), whose first wife was English. It might also be noted that early Christian (especially Roman Catholic) educa-tors in Hong Kong were interested in female education at least partly as a way of providing acceptable wives- for educated Christian Chinese males! See Evidence 14 and f.n. 48 in Chapter 3 above, with its reference to Asile, p. 22.
60.
Cf. the opinion of the anonymous author of The Central School: Can It Justify Its Raison
of 1854, which still forms the charter of Education in India, laid down that 'English is to be taught wherever there is a demand for it, but it is not to be substituted for the vernacular languages of the country/ Accordingly the Government of India not only established Departmental Schools for girls as well as boys wherever there was the smallest demand for English teaching, but liberally aided and encouraged Missionary Societies in pro-moting public and private (zenana) instruction in English, given to native girls...
11. A sample of Hong Kong initiatives and Colonial Office responses.
A variety of facts and opinions may be seen in interesting conjunction and counter-point.
(a)
'The Annual Report of the Inspector of Schools for the year 1891', in Hong Kong Government Gazette, 19 November 1892, pp. 961 ff. (Illus. 4.3).
(b)
Correspondence and minutes in Colonial Office files concerning the the Edu-cation Report for 1891, in CO 129/256, pp. 248 ff.
(i)
Despatch No. 320 from Sir William Robinson, Governor of Hong Kong to the Marquess of Ripon, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 21 November 1892.
I have the honour to transmit the Educational Report for 1891, which is on the whole satisfactory. I may mention that the Physical drill instituted by Dr. Eitel has proved very successful, and that I lately witnessed a parade on the Cricket ground of 528 school-boys who went through their exercises very creditably. Dr. Eitel is to be congratulated on the success of his efforts.
(ii)
Colonial Office Minute signed by S.W. Johnson, 2 January 1893.
1. As in several previous Reports Dr. Eitel shows strongly his pref-erence for Grant-in-Aid Schools over Government Schools. Without entering into an academic discussion with him on this question, we should I think:
? Point out, with reference to par. 7 of his Report, that his de-scription of the system in England is hardly accurate, as the Board
d'etre? (see Chapter 1, Evidence 14) and also that of the Education Committee which re-ported in 1902 (see Evidence 16, in this chapter).
THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19m NOVEMBER, 1892. 961
GOVERNMENT NOTIFICATION.—No. 472.
The following Annual Report of the Inspector of Schools for the year 1891, which was laid before the Legislative Council on the 16th instant, is published.
By Command,
G. T. M. O'BRIEN,
Colonial Secretary.
Colonial Secretary's Office, Hongkong, 17th November, 1892.
No. 50. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT,
HONGKONG, SOth May, 1892.
SIR,—I have the honour to present to you the Annual Report on Education in Hongkong for the year 1891.
2.
GENERAL EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS.—The total number of Educational Institutions known to have been at work in the Colony of Hongkong during the year 1S91 amounts to 215 Schools with a grand total of 10,119 scholars under instruction during the year. This constitutes an increase of 475 scholars as compared with the preceding year. Among those 10,119 scholars, there were 8,103 scholars attending 119 Schools under the supervision of the Government and receiving State aid in some form or other, whilst 2,016 scholars attended 96 Private Schools independent of Government supervision or aid, excepting the fact that those few of them which are not kept for private emolument are by law exempt from payment of rates and taxes.
3.
GENERAL STATISTICS OF SCHOOLS UNDER THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.—Apart from the Police School with 361 scholars of mature age and the West Point Reformatory attended by 70 young scholars, both of which Schools are exempt from the control of the Education Department, the total number of Schools subject to supervision and examination by the Education Department amounted in the year 1891 to 117 Schools, as compared with 72 Schools under the Education Department in the year 1881 and 26 Schools in the year 1871. The total number of scholars enrolled in those 117 Schools during the year 1S91 amounted to 7,672 scholars, as compared with 4,372 scholars in the year 1881 and 1,292 scholars in the year 1871. There was thus, during the decade 1871 to 1881, an increase of 46 Schools with 3,080 scholars, and a similar increase of 45 Schools with 3,300 scholars during the decade from 1881 to 1891. The population of the Colony increased, from 121,985 people in 1871, to 160,402 in 1881 and to 224,814 in 1891, showing an increase of 38,427 souls in the first decade and nearly double of that in the second decade, viz., 64,412 souls. It is clear, therefore, that the ratio of increase in schools and scholars, during the last twenty years, has been lagging far behind that, of the rapidly increasing population of the Colony.
4.
PROGRESS DURING THE LAST THREE YEARS.—Comparing the statistics of individual years, I find that the number of schools and scholars under the supervision of the Education Department rose from 104 Schools with 7,107 scholars in the year 1889, to 112 Schools with 7,170 scholars in 1890, and to 117 Schools with 7,672 scholars in 1891. The annual increase of scholars amounted in the year 1888 to 281 scholars, in the year 1889 to 849 scholars, in 1890 to 63 scholars and in 1891 to 502 scholars. The annual rate of increase, unusually high in the year 1889 and exceptionally low in 1890, was therefore rather good in the year 1891.
5.
COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS AND VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS.—Referring now to thoM' 117 Schools, with 7,672 scholars, which were under the supervision of the Education Department in the year 1891, there were as many as 5,132 scholars attending 81 Voluntary Grant-in-Aid Schools where they received a Christian education, whilst 2,540 scholars attended 36 Depart-mental Government Schools receiving a secular education. The secular Government Schools are all free schools with the exception of two (Victoria College and Girls' Central School), the fees of which are, however, below the average of similar Voluntary Schools. The latter offer Chinese instruction Tree of charge but require for English instruction school fees ranging from one to three dollars a month for each scholar, with extra charges for certain special subjects. The secular Government Schools having all their expenses provided by Government are, as a rule, better housed and have better .school materials and a larger and better paid staff than the religious Voluntary Schools. Nevertheless ihe latter arc annually growing in public favour for the reison that the teachers of Voluntary Schools, wlio^c salaries depend u^on the efficiency and results of their teaching, arc as a rule compelled by self-interest to be more painstaking in attending to the progress of each individual scholar. The subjoined Table exhibits ihe comparative development of Voluntary and Government Schools since the starting of the Grant-in-Aid Scheme of 1873.
Illus. 4.3 'The Annual Report of the Inspector of Schools for the year 1891'.
962 THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19TH NOVEMBER, 1892.
Comparative Statistics of Voluntary and Government Schools.
Eeligious Secular Voluntary Grant-in-Aid Schools. Go^einmsnt Depaitmental Schools.
1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891,
6 9 9 11 14 17 19 27 37 41 48
56 61 63 69 76 81
442
632
679
751
996
1021 1417 1808 2237 3068 3517 3907 4041 3951 4160 4325 4814 4656 5132
30 30 30 30 30 30 31 36 35 39 39 35 35 34 33 34
1838
1931
1927
2171
2148
2101
2043
2078
1986
2114
2080 1978 1803 1893 1814 1933 2293 2514 2540
6.
SITUATION or SCHOOLS.—The local distribution of the above mentioned 119 Public Schools under the supervision of the Government and the additional 96 Private Schools is on the whole satisfactory. Where the population is densest, the Schools are indeed too closely crowded together. In such cases, a combination of every cluster of small Schools into one large School would of course be preferable, both from an educational and from an economic point of view, but the high rate of house rent and the absence of suitably constructed houses make such a measure at present impracticable. But, though the central districts of the town have Public and Private Schools inconveniently packed together, the suburbs and the villages are comparatively speaking as well supplied with Schools. And yet, in all the purely elemtntary Schools in town, there is hardly a vacant seat to be found and the accommodation on the whole, though annually expanding in proportion to the growing demand for education, is below the actual requirements. Happily, the elastic character of our Grant-in-Aid System is such that wherever in the Colony there is a sufficiently strong demand for a new School, an attempt will with automatic certainty be made by the people to start a Grant-in-Aid School to meet that demand. Such Schools occasionally come to grief after a year or two and collapse again if the attendance is not sufficiently large to secure a substantial Grant. But the system is clearly capable of meetiug every reasonable demand in any localitj', as soon as the demand is strong enough. The only portions of the Colony where there is, owing to the absence of a sufficient demand, a topographical dearth of Schools, are the Pra) a from West Point to East Point, Aberdeen and the Peak District. In the two former cases the almost total absence of educational demands on the part of the boat population, the scarcity of family dwellings all along the whole line of the Praya and the unhealthiness of Aberdeen, are a sufficient explanation. In the case of the Peak District, the shght but growing demand for a Mixed School is at present too discordant, in social and relig:ous respects, to encourage the starting of a Private or Grant-in-Aid School, and too feeble 3'et to demand a Departmental District School. But a School will be wanted on the Peak very soon and if the Government were to grant the use of a piece of ground and building to a Committee, the School could easily be worked so as to be self-supportin°\ But as to the boat population, something will have to be done as soon as possible to bring them into the education net. One point in connection with the topographical distribution of our 36 Departmental, 81 Grant-in-Aid and 96 Private Schools deserves to be pointed out and that is, that, although those 81 Grant-in-Aid Schools are denominational Schools, giving a distinctly religious education, they are so widely scattered and so freely interspersed with the other Schools, tbat any tax-payers, objecting to religious education, will find some other School within easy distance to send their children to.
7.
EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE OF 'JHE GOVERNMENT.—The sum total spent by the Government, in the year 1891. for educational purposes ($72,983) amounted, after deducting the school fees ($12,624) repaid into the Treasury, to $60,359. ihis sum is equal to 3.26 per cent, of the total revenue of the Colony and constitutes an increase of $4,277 as compared with the expenditure of the preceding year. The principal items of the educational expenditure, incurred by the Government in the year 1891, are as follows :—Grants-in-Aid to Voluntary Schools $19,960, Victoria College $18,159, Departmental District Schools $8,271, Inspectorate of Schools $5,760, Government Central School for Girls $2,855, Government Scholarships $2,269, etc. ihe total number of scholars educated in the Colony at the expense or with the aid of the Government, in the year 1891, being 7,672, the education of each scholar cost the Government (after excluding cost of two Government Scholarships held in England) $7.49 per -cholar. In the several educational institutions the cost to Government of the '
Illus. 43 (Continued)
THh HONGKONG GO\PPvNMLNT GAZETTE, IOIH N.OVEMBFR, 1892 963
elucation of eich scholar em oik d m 1S91 was as f lions —m the Government Central S hocl ior Girls (including rent of lined bull li ^) $?9 13 pei scholir in the Victoria College (not including cost of building) ^16 38 per scholar in the Departmental Distuct Schools (including rent of hired bu H ngs) Sf 19 per scholar in the Giant m Aid Schools $3 83 pei scholar Ihe latter Schools hovever or rathei the Missiomiv, Societies conductm .‧ them, spent fiom their own pnv ite resomces in the year 1891 the sum of $->l 444 11 on the education of o 132 scholais oi $10 02 per scholar receiving fiom the Go\emment ns Grant in Aid foi 1891 (after delucting the bonus pail to the teachers) the sum of $16,933 03 or one third of their actual expenses (str ctly speaking 32 97 j er cent ) 1 he Grmt m Aid system as compared with the s\ stem of promoting education bv means of Departmental Government Schools commends itself not onlj I y its compaiatne cheapness as the abo\e figures show but bv its being more elastic in adopting its work to the \aiying needs of the people m 1 m le in touch with their demands A Grant n Vid School for instance cannot foice unseuiceible subjects upon unwilling scholais as a Government School can do noi can a Gi int in Aid School lefuse to turn itself into a distinctly Commeicial School when public need^ demmd it A Giant m Aid School takes up seeon lary edueation at the precise time an 1 t) the evact extent cdled for bv tie actual demand of the publ c an 1 I have no doubt whitevei but that the Giant in Aid S}stem of Hon^l ong is capable of supplying ill the educational nee Is of the Colony m piopoition is uhcy xnse oi expind
InEnglind there ite no Depaitmental Schoo s but all depaitmental educat onal efloi s of the Government ire confined to givmg aid to existing voluntary national schoo's and to encoungmg the starting of such voluntary secondai} schoo's oi clissesas aie needed foi technical, industrial oi arti tic purposes 1 his is what 1 desire for Hongkong in the dim futuie But this cun t pjssibly be dont rere for some yeais to come lor the pies nt I tl in tie Government must whilst expanding by all available means the system of aiding voluntary efforts in education continue all or most of its Departmental Schools all of which are really elementary Bit whilst the prom )t ion of element ny educaticn is continued by means of both Departmental anl \ oluntary Gi mt in Aid Schools the promotion of secondary elucition must be encoui iged e\clusivelv by the cheaper Grmt in Aid system and not by means of Departmei tal Schools What I ecommend thereroie is in eff ct to assimilate the education il s}stem of Hongkong so far as pnn lp'es aie concerned to that of England by expanding the system of Government Giants in Aid in fivoui of all forms of educition and confining accordingly Depirtmental Schools strictly to their piesent legitimate &[ here of elementary education
In my last Report I quoted the preeedent set by the Indian Government because like the
Government of Hongkong it had of necessity at first to stait Depaitmental Schools Since 1883
however the Indian Government now seeks to correct the anomily of the Governments assuming the
schoolmastei s idle and endeavours by gradual and cautious steps to assimil ite the educational
oigani7ation of India so far is its root principle is concerned with tint of England by stimulating
private effort in every braneh of education and confining the educational work of the Government
(with the exception for tie piesuit of the sphere of tlementaiy educition f>r which Depaitmental
Schools are still needed) to giving Grants in Aid and general supervis on to effective schools of all
grades that require it whilst continuing Departmental Schools for secon laiy education only m places
where voluntary effort will not or cannot sup| ly what public interests requne, or only until such
Departmental Secondary Schools can safely be handed over to pnvate effoits
8 NATLRE OF IHE 1 DLCATION GIVEN IN THE SCHOOLS OF THF CoiONY — As regaids the 117
Schools with 7 672 scholars under the supervision of the 1 ducation Depaitment in the year 1891,
20 Schools gave to 2 873 scholars of English Portuguese Indian oi Chn ese evtriction an Lnglish
education (combined with classical Chinese teaching in the case of 9 of these Schools with 1,879
scholars mostly Chinese) , 4 Schools gave to 1S4 Portuguese children a European education in the
Portuguese language , 3 Schools gave to 171 Chinese children a European education in the Chinese
language , and 90 Schools gave to 4 444 Chinese children a classical Chinese education in the local
Chinese vernaculars (Punti or Hakka) In other worls among 7 672 scholars under instruction in
the year 1891 in Schools under the supervision of the Education Department, 12 94 per cent received
-a purely English education 24 49 per cent received an English education combined with instruction
in the Chinese classics 2 39 per cent received an elementary Luropean educition in the Portuguese
and 2 22 per cent in the Chinese language and finally 57 91 per cent received a puiely Chinese
education As all these schools were either entnely supported by the Government or aided on the
basis of payment for results ascertained bv examination it may be of inteiest to state the propoition
of public funds devoted, in the year 1891, to the suj poit of those several branches of education Poi
the promotion of purely English education the Government paid in the year 1891 the sum of $6 185 ,
for the promotion of English education comlincd with Chinese instruction $2o 504 , for thepiomotion
of Turope in education in the i oituguese Ian uage $1 2o3 , for the promotion of European education in
the Chinese language $1 170 and for the promotion of Chinese education (in the Chmese language only )
$17,750 1 he English education ibe v e referred to though mainly elementary trends, m the highei
classes of seven k cal schools upon the subjects of secondary education as including not only Drawing
Music I atm, Algebra, Tuchd and Physical Geography, but also Book keeping Chemistry and Annn d
Physiology I wo local Schools (St Josephs College and Diocesan School) which, as stated in mv
last heport lately turned into distinctly commercial schools in response to local needs have added
to then programme, me the subject of -short hand and the other the working of a, type writer
Illus. 43 (Continued)
964 THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19TH NOVEMBER, 1892.
9.— FEMALE EDUCATION.—Though to a certain extent still in a backward state, female education is evidently making rapid strides in Hongkong to reach a normal condition. As to the proportion of boys and girls under instruction, one could not expect hitherto to see the two sexes equally represented in the Schools of a Colony like ours, where the mass of the population (the Chinese), whilst generally appreciating the value of a scholarly education in the case of their boys, are yet to a great extent sceptics as to the good that their daughters can get by attending school, or, looking upon girls generally as destined by nature to be merely domestic slaves or drudges, dread the enfranchising effects of female
education. Nevertheless the unceasing efforts made by the Government, particularly through the Grant-in-Aid Scheme, to enlarge .and improve from year to year the opportunities offered to the people to get a gratuitous education (including industrial needlework teaching) for their daughters, have had good effect with the Chinese who, with all their national prejudices against female education, are too shrewd to reject advantages offered free of expense. In 1851, when the Colony was ten years old and the population amounted to 32,983 people, there were 219 scholars under instruction in Public Schools, of whom 193 were boys and 26 girls. In 1861, when the population had risen to 119,321 people, the attendance of the Public Schools rose to 1,017 boys and 251 girls. In 1871, the population numbering 124,198 souls, there were, as proved by the Census of 5th May, 1871, as many as 2,230 boys and 476 girls under instruction. Two years afterwards (1873) the Grant-in-Aid Scheme came into operation, and from that time onward the proportion of girls to boys improved rapidly, with tolerably steady regularity, as will be seen from the subjoined Table shewing the proportion of boys and girls attending schools subject to the supervision of the Education Department from 1873 to 1891. It will be observed that in 1891 there were 2,791 girls under instruction in the schools referred to. Of these 2,791 girls, as many as 2,532 attended Grant-in-Aid Schools whilst only 259 attended Government
Schools. As u matter of fact, the extension of female education in the Colony is almost entirely due to the Grant-in-Aid system and to the efforts of the local Missions, which are vigorously pushing on education both in town and the villages, and latterly striving also to bring the girls of the boat population, in Yaumati, Hunghom and Shaukiwan, under the influence of education. The only portion of the,population whose girls were hitherto neglected by the Missions were the Eurasians, and to supplement this defect the Education Department has of late been making special efforts by means of the new Government Central School for Girls. Eemale education is, however, not merely expanding as regards the number of girls gathered into schools, but the quality of the instruction given in them is also improving from year to year, and in this respect the stimulus applied by the Belilios Medal and Prize Fund deserves special mention.
PROPORTION of BOYS and GIRLS under instruction in Schools subject to the supervision of the Education Department.
Scholars under instruction. Total Percentage of Population. of Scholars Boys. Girls.
Scholars. being Girls.
1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887. 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891,
121,985
139,144
160,402
166,433 173,475 181,529 190,594 200,990 212,951 215,800 194,482
221,441 1,976 2,282 2,177 2,379 2,520 2,544 2,850 3,187 3,364 3,941 4,120 4,238 4,329 4,161 4,195 4,342 4,991 4,846 4,881
304 281 429 543 624 578 610 699 859 1,241 1,477 1,647 1,700 1,683 1,779 1,916 2,116 2,324 2,791
2,280 2,563 2.606 2,922 3,144 3,122 3,460 3,886 4,223 5,182 5,597 5,885 6,029 5,844 5,974 6,258 7,107 7,170 7,672 13.33 10 96 16.46 18.58 19.84 18.51 17.63 17.98 20.34 23.94 26.38 27.98 28.19 28.79 29.77 30.77 29.77 32.41
10. ATTENDANCE AND NUMBEU OF UNEDUCATED CHILDREN.—For the first time in the history of the Colony, the Census of 1891 provided, at my suggestion, the means of ascertaining the exact number of children of local school-going age (6 to 16 years) in the Colony. The result is a saddening revelation. So far as the resident civil population is concerned, the result is indeed very near to what, by a rough estimate, I annually calculated it to be. In his Census Report of 15th August, 1891, (§ 19) the Registrar General states that on 20th May, 1891, "there were in Hongkong, of persons of school-going age (6 to 16 years), 783 Europeans or Americans, 184 nationalities other than Europeans, Americans or Chinese, and 21,331 Chinese (children), making a total of 22,298 (children of school-going age)." Referring (in § 20) to a Return, taken on the Census day, of children actually found present in School, the Registrar General further remarks, " This return shows that on the 20th May as many as Nu85 childreu actually attended school, though it was a rainy day such as, I am informed, keeps about w per cent, of children from school, if this 10 percent, be added, the number of children
Illus, 43 (Continued)
i HI HONGIvCAG GOVIRNMENT GAZETTE, 19TH NOVEMBER 1892 965
attt ndmg school may be estimated at 8 893 whirh "um couiQs neai the number actually enrolled in 1891 viz 9 681 Deducting the number of children attending .chool 8 893 from the number of persons of school going age viz , 22 298 there would be left 13,405 persons not accounted for Of this number some are e Incased by private tutors but it would bQ difficult to siy how many and the remainder must be presumed to be uneducatel Ihese statistics referring to the children of the res dent civil population deduced from the Census of 1^91 are veiy much what I had expected, confirming my former annual calculations ^ u that in Hongkong as in England about one half of the children of school sxing age actually come under instruction in public or pnvate Schools But a careful analysis of the Census tibles re\eilcd the fict tl at the above given number of 22 298 chillien of school going age tak s no account of th^ childr n of the hx/i! bo it population in whos* case the returns furnished only the number of chil lren under 17 years of a >-e As we may safely assume that the proportion of boat people s children of 5 years and under, to those of 6 to 16 years is about the same as in the case of the resident civil populition, vi/ 30 4o per cent I find that there were among the 10,927 bo t people & childien under 17 years (6 196 b^ys anl 4 731 girls) as many as 7 601 children ^4 310 boys and 3 291 girls) of school going age (6 to 16 years) Hence we hive before us the staitling fact that m 1S91 there were in the Colony altogether 29 89<> children who ought to have come under instruction whilst the registeis of all the Schools uudnr the Education Depa tment in the year 1891 and the returns of the Pn\afe Schools show an enrolment of no more than 9 758 children (lea\ mg the Police School out of the calculation) In othei words the saddening fact stares us m the face that in spite of the existence of 215 Schools in the Colony (as pioved by the Census) which are with the exception of Victoria College mostly crow led and in spite of eveiy effort made by th^ Education Department and the Registrar General who has always most cordially assisted (by m ans of his Distnct Watchmen) to stimulate school attendance there were in 1891 as many as 20 141 childien of school going age m the Colony who lttend no school Of a total of 15 748 boys of school going age only 6 657 or 42 27 per cent attended school (viz , 4,9J 1 in Schools under Government supervision and 1 706 m Private Schools) Of a toHl of 14 lol girls of school going age only 3 101, or 21 91 per cent came under school instruction (viz 2 791 in schools under th° Education Department and 310 in Pri\ate Schools) The case of the boys Is? not bad certainly no worse thin in Ireland as nearly one half of the boys of school going age lo lttend School But the principal defaulters in the matter of school attend mce are clearlv the girls and of this point the Govern nent his bQen aware all along Of the 7 601 children (6 to 16 yei s) of the boat p julation in 1 of the purchase 1 servmt girls (of the same a_,e) there a e at } les nt 1 irdly 200 or 3()0 coming un ler mstructun
Thin s ire howe\er n t halt as had is th°y look It mu-st be understood that although our local
school age is coirectly fixed not at 5 to lheu s as in Englail, but at 6 to 16 years because the
majority of children m this Colony do lequ re for a proper elucation at least 4 years it Chinese and
6 years at English studies 01 10 years at Chine e classic d stud es and th° average igecbservtd among
scholars is act u illy 6 to 16 ye ir& yet of the H) 111 chil lren of 6 to 16 \eirs of ige not attendiug any
school in 1S91 i lar^e number had been m Chinese Schools prcvious'y for 2 to 4 years and then
went into business lite without finishing their education Con equeutly we may I think, sifely ^ay
that of the 20 141 children of 1 jcal scho 1 going ige who in 1S91 attende 1 no school at all x large
number possibly one half though they must technicilly be cl issed with the un^iucate 1 ha\e received
some sort of educition such is then parents think suffic ent in 1 are u t absolutely llhtente
Under these circumstances I think that though thcie is indeed a danger of illiteracy increasing in
Hongkong at a greiter ratio than the population still the drastic 1 uiopean remedy of i co npulsory
attend ince liw with its frictional working geir of School Tax School BoaHs \ttenlance ( ommittees
and Poltce Court prosecutions is neithet necessary nor practicable undei loed circumstances I am
satisfied that the Government will sufficiently discharge its duties by giving to cm loed school system,
which has slowly but healthily developed in the shade w of the Colony s exuberant growth as wid&
.an I as rapid expan.ion as financial means allow with a view to nrovide as sc n as possible additional
scho )1 accomm d ition for ibout one half of our nneducited or imperfectly educite 1 chil hen In other
^ords whit we 1 ave to ai n it is to bring it le. t naif of the nu nber of clnldi n of &c 1) )1 0 mg age,
say fifteen thousand scholirs under instruction m loed scnools But as we h t\e provided at present
for ni elly ten thousand of them anl a& the nu nber to be taken nto consid rition increases ft >myear
to yeir a determined effort will ha\e to be made immediately to tuither the expansion of elementaiy
education in the most economic and efficient wav possible What I think has to be done therefore i^>,
in the first instance, to renench expenditure in all Departmentll Schools so far as it cm be done
wittiout imj airing their efficiency and secondly to mike every po sible effort to encourage voluntaiy
education ll enterprise ind to expand in every direction the Grant in Ail sy si, m nthei tirm the more
ex| ensue l)e[ artmentil "schools But furthei special efforts will have to be mid° to bnn_, into the
ed ication net the children of tho<=e clashes of the population which habitually deuy them the piivilegc*
of education I \entuie theiefore to uige as in foimer Reports the ad\i ability of compelling by law
the registration and education of all pui chafed "ervant girls in the Colo ly I do not know md have
no means of ascertaining how many children of schoo1 Ooing age are under the locil system of do nestic
bond servitude But, at a rough guess I think theie may be two thousand of them oi moie A,_ un
1 woukl recommend once more to piohibit by lav the employment at public laboui ot children
apparently under thirte n years of age ^c\t , I think special effoits will have to be made t> apply
moi d pre sine to the b it population to arouse them to a sense of the cducUional needs ct their
Illus. 4.3 (Continued)
96h fHF HONGKONG GOMRNMENT GAZETTE 19TH NOVMIBI R, 1892
children 1 his can be done by the ippointment < f a Chinese Attendance Officir as suggested in 1889 by the Right Honourable the Secretaiy of State for the Colonies ind b) the supply of additional
Schools at laikoktsui \ aumati Aberdeen a ul Shauki wan But as the foregoi ijf measures will put an adelitional strun on our annually increasing educational expenditur 1 \cntuie finally to submit for the consideration of the Government with parti u ir refeience to the ne d of Scho 1 houses and Building Grants, the question whether it mi) not be ad visible to create in some wa\ a special School lund I find it stated on good authority that the excellent provisioi which the United States in the absence of the ancient educational endowments of Jhurjpe have male f r Schools of all grades is principally due to a law mide in 176T that in ill new States theieafter to be added to the seventeen then existing a special appropriation of one sixteenth of the public Ian 1 should be re en el for the purpose of supj lying l School I'und' It seems t:> me that seme similai measure is nee led in Hongkong to piovide for the future lo conclude this list of the most | resting of our present educitional needs I beg to point out with reference to 14 biys of <=chool going age found on the list Census day in prison that the present impossibility of effectively segregating dnd educating juvenile offendeis whilst in priscn and the absence of power to forcibly detain inmates of the only local Reformatory constitutes not only a serious educational def ct but one th it is likely to cieite h ibitual criminals 1 he principal statistics of children remaining uneducated will be found concisely summaiized in 1 able XVI appended to this 1 eport
11 —I ESLI/IS OF TH* ANNUM EXAMINATIOVS—As fir as the 81 "\ oluntary Grant in Aid Schools are concerned the detailed results of the ai nual examination of these Schools will be found summarized in lable XI \ appended to this Report where the percentage of scholars pissed in each School in 1891 is stated and comj ared with the results of the preceding vear an 1 in lable XV which recoids the percentage of passes gained by these schools in each subject As regiHs the Departmental Government Schools the reports of the Headmaster of Victoria College and of the Headmistress of the Government Ccntial School for Girls have been published in the local pij eis and in the Goiernment Gazette The Departmental District Schools wdl be found classified an 1 irranged in the order of their efficiency in lable X appended to this Report which lable embo lies the lesults of the annual examination of the&e District Schools I subjoin, however a few critical observations as to those examinations the results of which have not yet been sufficiently brought foiwird
12 VICTORIA COLLFGE—With a staff consisting in the iggregate of i Headmaster and thirty eight teachers viz 8 1 nghsh and 10 Chinese Masters with 8 salanel pupil teachers and monitors all available for English woik and 4 other Chinese Masters for Chinese instruction as well as 8 further Chinese Masters assisting the corresponding number of V nghsh Masters an 1 with an enrolment of 1 108 boys Victona College brought only 709 boys under exammition, the average attendance throughout the year being 759 boys Ihe examinations were conducted as in the prece ling years by the Head master and mv self conjointly The Headmastei set the jnpers for the English examination and I revised and added to them Ihe examination of the \nglo Chinese Division and of the pupil teachers training class, as also the English reading of the whole College was taken by myself in the presence of the Headmaster 1 he subjects for Lnghsh composition in 1 the whole of the p ipers for the examination of the Chinese Classes were set by myself The wntten inswers of the boys having been marked and adjudged bv the Headmister he innounced on pn/e giving day the results of this joint examination as they appeared to him and embodiel his own views (as to results obtained in the pu|ul teacher* examination and in the several classes of the Upper lower, and Piepirttory ￡chools with special refeience to Mathematics 1 nghsh Dictation Composition Grammar and Shakespeare) in his report which was read on the same occasion and published in the local papers and in the Government Gazette
I confine my remarks therefore to those subjects winch the Headmasters report parses over in silence though it gives me } leasure to be able to say that a perusil of the boys papers has once more impressed me with the fact that the School does re illy excellent work on the whole in the subjects of Anthmetic Algebra Geome ry, and Mensur ition But while the School is decidedly ipt to produce specialists in mathematics the teaching of the speciGcally English subjects appears to be proportionately less successful There are, however peculiarly unfavourable circumstances surrounding the English teaching of \ ictoria College Ihe majonlv of the boys as well as the Masters aieChine&e who sel ^om speak or hear a woid of English outside the bchool Ihe boys who befoie entering the College have passed through foui or moie years study of books written in classical Chinese have, in Victoria College English reading books put m then hands which in no way connect with the social moril and national environment of a Chinese brain, home or school but plunge these boys head over heels into a sphere congenial indeed to the P nghsh bred school boy but to these Chine e lads utterly bewildenng besides piesupposing an amount of knowlel^e of idiom it c and technical Lnghsh j hrases which everj English sch ol bryhisatln s fingeis ends when first enteru g school but which ate Greek to these Chinese youths even when they have spent five or six yens in Victoria College Under these uicumstinces when commencing the Fnghsh reiding ex imination of the College I told the Headmister that 1 would i_,noie mispronunciation rfany woi Isofftrci n origin and p ss any thing below three gross failuns of simple Sax n woids cm'ained in five lme& fiom that i ortion of the re iding book of rich cl iss which 1 i been rei 1 and e\j limed in the ordm iry rea ling lessors within the previous few moi ths Aj>| lying MHII a low stan 1 ird 1 exjected evuy boy of ever ^o mel otre att unnient to j ass fa lly Lut I w is sadly disappointcl 1 subj m i I ibleof Results whicr speiks for itself It appears to me to contiim what I hue poi ited out in former repo t&, viz , that 1 nghsh
Illus. 43 (Continued)
THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19TH NOVEMBER, 1892. 967
ought to be taught by Englishmen and that many classes in Victoria College are too large for an effective lesson. It is also self-apparent from the subjoined Table that when English reading is taught all the way up from Class VIII. G to III, ^1, in 15 out of 21 classes, by Chinese teachers to whom English is an absolutely foreign and uncongenial tongue, the result must be disappointing. It is a maxim of the theory of education that the best teaching is required in the lowest classes of a school because there the foundation for all after-work is laid, and in its highest classes because there the scholar receives the finishing impressions with which he will go into the business of life. But all the best teaching power of Victoria College appears to be confined to the highest and smallest classes, some of which the vast majority of the scholars never enter, and where the teacher of English History, Shakespeare or Chemistry is perpetually compelled to stop and teach the AB C over again. On this point, I believe I am expressing what the English Masters of the College bitterly feel to a man. Giving an English
Master a general superintendence of classes for each of which after all a Chinese Master is responsible, is no remedy for the evil I refer to.
VICTORIA COLLEGE.—RESULTS OF EXAMINATION IN ENGLISH READING, 1891.
Number of Scholars enrolled—1J08. Number of Scholars presented—697.
No . Class. Apparent Average Age of Scholars. Number Examined. Number Failed. Number Passed. Percentage Passed. Name of Teacher.
Years.
1 I. A., 17 11 0 11 100.00 R. M. Jamieson, M.A.
2 I. B 17 13 0 13 100.00 E. J. Boards.
3 II. A., 16 35 0 35 100.00 J. J. Booth.
4 II. B., 16 31 2 29 93.54 A. J. May.
5 III. A., 16 38 0 38 100.00 G. A. Woodcock.
6 III. B., 15 25 0 25 100.00 W. C. Barlow.
7 IV. A., 15 52 3 49 94.23 Lnk King-fo.
8 IV. B., 15 2 9 1 28 96.55 Wan Chung-iu.
9 IV. C, 15 32 1 31 96.87 Chii Tsun-tslng.
10 V. A., 14 49 1 48 97.95 Cheung Ts'oi.
11 V. B., 14 28 0 28 100.00 Lo Kit.
12 V. c., 14 29 1 28 96 55 Cbiu Chi-tsung.
13 VI. A., 15 56 3 53 94 64 Nglu.
14 VI B., 14 31 7 2 4 77 41 Leung Lam-fan.
15 VI. c , 15 27 2 25 92.59 Lo Cheung-shiu.
16 VII. A., 14 32 6 26 81.25 Tsang Chung.
17 VII B., 14 30 6 24 80.00 Wong Kok-ii.
18 VII c , 14 37 2 35 94.59 Sham Tsau-fat.
19 yin . A., 13 30 0 30 100.00 fWong Wai-ho. (Li Man-hing.
20 VIIL B., 13 29 2 27 93.10 J Wong Ming. 1 Wong Luiig-kim.
21 VIIL c , 12 53 1 52 98.11 | Pun Yun-fong. (Leung Kwong-hin.
14.65 697 38 659 94.16 ( 6 English and \18 Chinese Teachers.
I have good reason to believe that the English teaching of Victoria College does not, of late, -satisfy the Chinese community, for whose particular benefit this School exists. The Chinese, as a rule, do not openly or directly complain of official establishments, but they have an ugly way of expressing their discontent by anonymous libellous epigrams. I believe they have the impression that the teaching of the College is too bookish, too theoretical, not practical enough for the average business requirements of Hongkong. I think I can understand the sub-conscious ideas underlying these views. The Chinese know even better than we do that filling the scholar's head with undigested facts and hard scientific English terms, whilst giving him a mechanical smartness in performing certain mathematical operations, is not education. At the last examination of Victoria College I had a class of big Chinese boys before me who could readily work out stiff problems in Arithmetic in precise and neat English form. But when J had an easy sum like 64,5U1,0U7 written on the black board as a test of elementary notation and asked them merely to read or write it off in Chinese, they one and all could not do it. rl hey could vxrite stilted Chinese prose essays and turn rhymes according to the intricate rules of antique Chinese pro^oely. They could easily read or write off and work fractionally in
Illus. 43 (Continued)
968 THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19rn NOVEMBER, 1892.
English form sums of any number of digits: but the rudimentary principles of English and Chinese arithmetical notation were lying, side by side, in their brain cells, mutually un-amalgamated, because individually unassimilated. What 1 thus noticed in the case of Arithmetic, Chinese parents no doubt constantly observe in other respects. Hence their discontent.
The peculiar educational problem which Victoria College is, by its very constitution, called upon to solve is not to teach in Hongkong English as it is taught in England, but neither is it to teach English and Cliioese side by side (as some worthy people in Hongkong would have it), which practically means to teach as much high class English and mathematics, side by side with as much classical Chinese, as can be stuffed into a bojT's braiu without manifest over-pressure. The real problem which Victoria College, as an Anglo-Chinese School, has to solve is, how to give Chinese boys an elementary English education in all its branches, the sole object being to teach them English, but so as to help them step by step to transform all English knowledge newly imparted to them into their own Chinese flesh and blood by connecting the former with the inherited and acquired mental possessions of the latter. W I am right in this., then the educative methods and whole organization of the College require a radical reform.
And now that I have for the thirteenth time conducted the annual examination and reported upon this College, I respectfully but urgently solicit Her Majesty's Government to relieve me in future from active connection with this sort of joint examination. Eor the last fourtean years, the unnatural but assumedly unavoidable combination of the Inspector of School's general test examination (in the interest of the public) and the Headmaster's individual result examination (for the purpose of promotion and prizes in the interest of the scholars) has produced an annually increasing train of perplex harassments crowding in upon me at the very time when the examinations of over six thousand children outside Victoria College tax body and mind most heavily. I have no desire to shirk work or duty. I am prepared at any time to examine and report upon Victoria College, as in the case of any other School included in the Education Department of which I was appointed Heaef in March, 1878, but I earnestly beg to be relieved from the difficulties inherent in this present anomaly of combining an examination for prize and promotion purposes which properly belongs to the Headmaster alone, with the general test examination of a public educational institution which is the natural duty of the Head of the Education Department whoever he be. The former examination must necessarily be held at the close of the school year, and if the latter were to be undertaken at some other time, say in the middle of the year, neither would theu clash with the other as at present.
I subjoin the usual statistics forwarded to me by the Headmaster, representing the detailed results of the joint examination as adjudged by him.
I.—VICTORIA COLLEGE.—NUMBER OF BOYS PASSED IN EACH SUBJECT, 1891.
T3
a
"fi
03
P* a be c
w
CLASS. c c JI bb S3 bO ‧B O -2
o
^
s o 03 a c o
bo c
1 'A .2 3 J3 o "3
1 Q rs J3
B o _d
J* o
To o S a
H H M W O O O O H} PQ cc H
< . & w < tn &
p. T. S, 6 6 4 3 6 6 5 5 6 4 6 Q I.A., 12 12 12 12 9 10 10 12 12 11 12 12 11 5 10 10 12 I.B., 13 10 13 8 11 12 9 8 10 11 7 7 10 5 6 1 6 II.A., 35 35 35 34 31 32 31 27 29 32 34 35 29 34 10 26 H.B., 31 28 29 29 13 24 26 23 19 26 21 25 13 19 7 21 III.A., 37 32 37 27 16 32 28 20 17 31 35 31 28 26 IIIB 25 23 25 21 11 20 23 17 21 24 23 24 18 23 IV.A., 5i 49 48 43 34 45 40 38 44 51 40 IV.B., 30 25 29 21 21 19 7 21 23 22 20 IV.c, 82 29 31 31 30 30 26 23 28 24 18 V.A., 50 41 49 36 33 44 45 32 30 22 24 V.B., 29 18 29 17 14 18 18 8 14 14 17
...
V.c, 31 21 3f> 17 19 17 20 9 21 21 14 VI.A., 58 53 55 42 42 51 52 48 53 50 VLB 31 26 24 20 24 24 31 27 21 23 VI.c, 28 24 26 17 22 24 27 13 23 16 VILA., 32 30 26 28 23 2! 29 28 VLI.B., 31 31 25 31 31 30 31 31 VII.c, 37 37 35 37 36 23 37 37
*.""
V1II.A., 29 29 29 29 27 24 26 29 VIII.B., 28 28 26 28 28 22 26 28 VIII.c., 53 53 52 52 52 49 50 52
Total, 640 665 534 530 577 598 427 I 370 243 274 132 134 113 112 39 58 18 6
Examined hi each Subject, 709 703 709 709 709 7C9 599 499 340 382 153 153 159 14C* 97 91 25 6
* Including 5 from Class LA, Special.
Illus. 4.3 (Continued)
CONSOLIDATION, CONFLICT AND CONTROL
THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19TH NOVEMBER, 1892. 969
II.—VICTORIA COLLEGE.—PERCENTAGE OF PASSES IN EACH SUBJECT, 1891.
S 3
1 i
6 c O-vj
c a . a . .a
CLASS. |
51 1 S to I Q 1 3 b
c
1 1
eS
il I
H H P <3 3 ‧< O H
w o e § o
. < i-" ‧-^
P.T.S.,... r> 100.00 66.66 50.00 100.00 100.00 83.33 83.33 100.00 66.60 100.00 100.00 16.6666
...1 ... "... f...
I.A. 12 100.00 100.00 100 00 75.00 83.33 83.33 100.00 100.00 91.66 looon'ioooo 91.66 100 00 83.33 83.33 10'.on 8.3333 I.B., 13 76.92 100.00 61.53 84.61 92.30 69.23 61.53 76.92 84.61 53.84! 53.S4 76.92 33.40 16.15 7.69 46.15 7.6923 II.A...... 35 100.00 100.00 97.14 88.57 91.42 88.87 77.14 82.85 91.42 97.14|l00.00 82.S5 97.14. S8..-7 74.28, ... 2.S571 H.B., ... 31 90.38 93.54 93.54 41.93 77.47 83.S7 74.19 61.29 83.S7 67.74,80.64 41.93 61.29, 22.58 67.74 ... 3.225S III.A., ... 37 86.48 lOd.OO 72.97 43.25 86.49 75.67 54.05 45.94 83.78 94.57] 83.78; 75.67 70.28 ... 2.7027
III.B 25 92.00 100.00 84.00 44.00 80.00 92.00' 68.00 84.00 96.00 92.00 95.00,' 72.00 92.00, ... 4.0000
IV.A., ... 96.07 94.40 84 31 (5(5.(56 88.23 78.43 74.51 86.27 100.00 78.43 1.9607
r,\
IV. B 30 S3.33 96.66 70 00 70.00 63.33 23.33 70.00 76 66 73.33 66.66 ... ... ... ... 3.3333 32 00.62 96.87 96.87 93.75 93.75 81.25 71.87 87.50 75.00 56.25 3.1250
SPECIAL SUBJECTS.
iv.c, ...
CLASS I.A.
V.A 50 82.00 98.00 72.00 66.00 88.00 90.00 64.00 60.00 14 00 48.00 2.0000
C'acmibtry, 6 examined; 83.33 passed.
29 62.05 100.00 58 50 48.25 62.05 62.05 27.58 48.25 48.25 58.50 3.4482
V.B; .... Mensuration, 5 ,. ; 40.00 ,.
V.C 31 67.74 96.77 54.83 61.28 54 83 64.51 29.03 (57.74 67.74 45.16 3.2258 VLA., ... 58 91.37 94.82 72.40 72.40 S7.92 89.65 82.75 91.37 86.20 1.7241
VI.B , ... 31 83.87 77.42 64.51 77.42 77.42 100.00 87.09 67.74 74.19 3.225S
vi.c 28 85.71 92.85 60.71 78 56 85.71 96.42 46.42 82.14 57.14 3.5714 VII.A., . 32 93.75 81.25 S7.50 71.87 65.62 90.62 87.50 3.1250 VII.B., . 31 100.00 80.64 100.00 100.00 96 77 100.00 100.00 3.2258 VII.c., . 37 100.00 94.59 100.00 97.29 62.16 100.00 100.00 Writing 2.7027 VIII.A... 29 100.00 100.00 10.X00 93.10 82.75 89.65 100.00 3.4482 V1II.B.,. 28 100.00 92.85 100.00 100 00 78.56 92.85 100 00 3.5714 VIH.c.,. 53 100.00 98.11 98.11 98.11 92.45 94.33 98.11 1.8867
709 90.26 94.59 82.37 74.75 81.38 84.34 -71.28 74.74 71.47 71.72 86.27 87.58 71.07 76.71 40.20 63.73 72.00100.00
III.—VICTORIA COLLEGE.—CHINESE EXAMINATION, 1891.
CHINESE SCHOOL.
Percentage Table of Passes.
Total
Total No.
Class. Essay. Letter. Prosody. Tuitni. Percentage
Examined.
Passed.
1 50 92 80 42 72 92
2 62 93 89 92 92
3 57 90 82 77 88
4 57 90 91 88 90
5 , 56 91 87 87 90
57 82 84 88 88
7 62 82 76 89 84
53 75 89 81 85
IV.—VICTORIA COLLEGE.—ANGLO-CHINESE EXAMINATION, 1891.
Anglo-Chinese Class.
Total Total
Copy
Division. No. Reading. Dictation. Characters. Translation. Percentage
Writing.
Examined. Passed.
9 78 81 33 33 78
11 82 64 00 64 45 64
II
12 91 50 50 67 83
10 70 80 80 90 ; 90
Illus. 43 (Continued)
970 THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE 19m NOVEMBER, 1*92
13 GOVEUNMFNT CENTRAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS—In spite of the repeated changes that took place in the staff of this School w hicL has had within less thin two years of its existence three successive Headmistresses, and notwithstanding the smallness of the hiied School house and the insuitabilitv of its location, the Gnls Cential School has justified its establishment There can be no doubt now but that the School lias supplied a felt though unexpressed educational want of Eurasians in the first and of Chinese and 1 uropeans in the second inst mce The annual examination showed satisfactory result* such as testified to the efficienev of the teaching given in the School s Upper and Lowei Divisions there beinj: cleai e\ idei ce of steady pi ogress in the 1 uglish as well as in the Chinese classes with the exception of the \uthmetic of the I ower Division Ihe want of propel accommodation and the absence of a plav ground are sadly lestraming the expansion and j loper management of the School, the whole of which is now crowds 1 while the Lowei Division urgently needs subdivision by the formation of an infant class for children undei six vears Ihe interest which Lidy ROBINSON has taken in this ^chool and th liberal offer of the Honourable L R BBLILIOS to provide a school house, promise a bright future f r a ^chool which is just emerging from the chivsahs stite of a mere experiment but sadly needs wmj^s and free room to expand ind prosper m the sunshine of public favour We ha\e nothing as vet in Hongkong of th° so called new education with its kindergartens form study hand and e)e training manual industrial technical and cookeiy instruction Nor hive we any pressing need for any of thes° subjects with the exception of the first the kindergarten One of the be t modern authorities on duration Dr HARRIS United States Commissionei of Education has stated it as his com iction that without a compulsory law the period of school influence could only be extended by drawing children into school enher lhat beinjj so I see under our present local circurnstanees additioi al reasons foi satisfying the mgent need foi an mfmt division to ba added to the Girls C entral School bv the establishment of a normal kind°rgarten than which there is no better means in existence nor my better adopted for the pecuhanties ot Hongkong in order to draw children into school earlier But TROEBrLS svstem of edueating the natural activities of child nature, on the basi5? of the analogy existing between the development of humanity and that of the individual, is a thing complete in itself and cannot be applied to Hongkong in a 1 alf heaited or partial manner It m oc be taken as a whole or left alone But I trust the Goveinment will courageously take the lead in this respect and mtioduce when the time for it is ripe a genuine kindergaiten normal school in Hongkong as a guide foi the development of private effort in this ditection I have urged this measure for years upon private educationists but none have taken it up yet
14 DEPARTMENTAL DISTRICT SCHOOLS — \moug the 34 Departmental District Schools (outside Victoria College and Git Is Central School) theie were m the year 1891 six Anglo Chinese Schools (at Saiyingpun Wantsai Wongnaichung Stanley Yaumah and Shaukiwan) with a total of 525 scholars as compared with 510 scholars in 1890 shewing hardly any increase as the respective School houses do not admit of any more boys being squeezed in except pei haps at Wantsai The Saiyingpun Anglo Chinese School was moved in the course of the 3 ear into the first of those new District School-houses the building of which was 1 evolved upon twelve years ago Lvery av aiiable seat m the English class rooms of the new buildiDg WuS fille 1 on the da) of opening Ihe demand for additional opportunities foi English teiching at Wantsai was so gieat that it became necessary theie also as at Saiyingpun to make no m re provision for teachers quaiters in these school houses but to utilize any available space for (lass rooms At Shaukiwan however the school house which had accommodation for 75 scholars had for sever il yeirs past i lapidly decreasing attendance, the house being believed by the people to be haunted bv evil spirits that cause 1 wasting disea e and by a Sanitaiy Committee condemned as unhealthy vhich is leally only another v\ay of expressing the truth underlying that vulgar superstition Ihe functions of that School which was closed m September were virtually taken over by the London Mission under the Rev Dr CHALMFRS Ihe continued unhealthiness ot the Stanley Department il School which has for years past been sa lly inteifering with the health and lives of the successive alien teachers without affecting the attendance or health of the indigenous scholars attracted the attention of the Government and led to the resolution to erect as soon as possible 1 scl ool house there in a suitable locality but whether this will improve the sanitary conditions of the School lerimns to be seen Ihe English teacning of these Schools is on the whole, of a mediocre character and lllustiates that sad defect of loeal education the absence of a training institution The remaining 28 Departmen al Schools, with 809 scholars receiving a purely Chinese, but classical education do not call for any remark
15 GRANT IN 4ID SCHOOLS—Ten new Grant in Aid Schools were started m the year 1891, viz 1 bv the Ameucan Board Mission under the Rev J R 1 AYLOR 5 by the London Mission under the I ev Dr CHALMEHS and 3 by the Roman Catholic Mission, under the Lady Superioress of the Italian Convent and 1 other School (the High School undei Bishop RAIMONDI) took the place of the defunct Hongkong Public School by a mere change of location and management Three of those new London Mission Schools (at Taikoktsui Shaukiwan and Priya Central) and those three Schools of the Sisters of the Italian Convent (at Yaumati Hunghom and Shaukiwan) were principally intended to bring the school shy children of the boat \ o\ illation under instruction But the efforts thus energetically made have not as yet met with much success except perhaps at Shaukiwan where the J ahan bisters md Miss JOHNSTONI of the I nale Education ^ociety are beginning to get some educational influence among the girls of the bo it popu! ition The London Mission, under the direction
Illus. 43 (Continued)
THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19TH NOVEMBER, 1892 971
of the Rev Dr CHAL*ILRS has of late years been taking an incieasingly prominent positirn in the educational movement of the Colonv there being at the present day as many as 32 Schools under the charge of Dr CHALMIRS, assisted bv a Lady manager Miss DAVIFS, 18 of tho&e Schools being Girls Schools In all the Grant in Aid Schools the tendenc) remarked upon m foimer Eeports, to develop the standard of instruction in the direction of secondary educ ition has steadily continued The cry for a seventh standard accoidmgly becomes louder every vear It was my intention to nake a recommendation to the Government in the course of the yeai to extend the scope of the Grant in Aid Scheme by adding a seventh standaid in the ease of Sehools of Classes III ai d IV (giviu_, a I uropean education) and revising the value of passes besides adding a seventh standard in the case of bchools in Class I (giving a Chinese education) But the measure involves as much financial as educational consideiatio is and under present encumstances when the expansion of the elementary basis of our educational structme makes such pressiuo" claims upon the financial resomces of the Government I deem it moie ui_ent to continue enlir^u _, oui foundations tb m +o build it the top le t we be providing for the educational needs ot the few to the negleet of the ciying necessities ot the many lhQ measure will have to be postponed theiefoie foi a shoit tine but it will leceivc due lttention as soon as th^re is a prospect of the necessaiy financial means being forthcoming
1 he annual examinations proved satisfactorily that our Chinese as well as our English Schools are making steily progress in improving from year to year their methods and oigani7atio l The steady increase of special subjects is also a feature indicating the general vigour pervadin^ the Euglish teaching Schools Special mention must be made of the Victoria English Schools as a whole and particularly of the Girls Division which has of late been taking a foremost phce, so far as examination results and general thoiou^hness of its woik is concerned among the Girls bchcols of the Colony St Josephs College and tl e Diocesan School also continue to distinguish themselves by the Macuty and success with which they hav e responded to the call of the Colony for a distinctly com nercial e lucation and by the great ittention they bestow on the subjects trend mg upon a <=econdaiv educat on in then special classes of scholars who have passed bevond the sixth standard of the Grant in Aid Scheme I would specially recommend to those two Schools as well as to the Victona Eighsh SCIIOJIS High School and St Paul s Colhge School to aim at the introduction ot evening continuation clo&ses for the particular benefit of former scholars who have left school but ieel the need of fuither instruction m the rudiments of secondary technical or scientific instruction The Italian Convent finally, deserves special commendation for the praiseworthy effoits made by the Sisteis to develop the taste for drawing, painting and music among the boys and girls of the Colon} by scientifically graded instruction in these subjects
16 OXFORD I OCAL EXAMINATIONS—The results of the Oxford local Examination held in Hongkong in July, 1891 weie as follow —I Jimioi Division—Honouis list none Pass List — Diocesan School 3 passes , St Joseph s College 2 passes , \ ictoria College 1 pass Candidates who, having exceeded the age of 16 years, satisfied the 1 xammeis —Diocesan School, 3 passes, Victona College 2 passes , St Joseph s College 1 pass Successful candidates who obtained distinction — Diocesan School, 2 in religious knowledge Details of examination results of Junior Division — presented 36 , examined, 31 , passed in preliminary subjects, 23 , passed in leligioua knowledge, fully 6, partly 2 , passed m English fully (not including Shakespeire) 9 partly 6 , parsed in English, including Shakespeare 13 , pas=ed in mathematies, 21 , pas&ed in drawing, 3 lotal of certificates issued, 6 Total of pass certificates issued to candidates who had exceeded the limit of asre, 6 II Senior Division—Honours List none Pass List —St Josephs College 3 passes, Diocesan School, 2 passes , Victoria College 1 pass Successful candidates who obtained distinction —Diocesan School 1 in English Details of examination tesults of Senior Division —presented 6 , examined, 6 , passed in preliminary subjects, 6 , passed in religious knowled e 2 , passed in English b , passed in Trench 1 , passed in mathematics, 6 , passed in drawin^, 3 lotal of certificates issued 6 Ihe foregoing results ma} be summarized thus —Diocesan School, 8 passes and 3 distinctions , St Joseph s College, 6 passes , Victoria College, 4 passes
17 B*LILIOS MEDAL AND PRIZF EXAMINVTIONS—The usual competitive exa imations for Behhos Medals and Piizes were held at the City Hall on 22nd and 23td December 1891 Twenty nine scholars of seven different local Schools took part in the conpetition In the Bo}. Division (Composition on a subject of commercial Geography Algebra Mensuiation anl Bookkeeping) St Joseph's College gained the 1st 3rd and 4th prizes, and the Diocesan School the 2nd ind oth prizes In the Girls Enghsn Division (Composition, Histor} and Physical Geography) the \ ictoria English School took the 1st, 2nd and 3rd prizes In the Girls Chinese Division (Composition Tianslatio I and Arithmetic) the Victoria Home and Orphanage School took the 1st anl 1th puzes and the Bisel Mission School the 2nd and 3rd prizes
18 PHYSICAL TRAINING —Physical drill, in accordance with the S)skm adopted in all Bntish Army Schools was mtrod iced in Hongkong 11 spring 1891 Fiic Government provided the salary ol a Drill Instructor whose set vices were pi iced at the disposal orevei} School in the Lol my len Public Schools and 1 Private School (3 of the numbei being Gnls Schools) av uled themselves of the offer, and physical drill quickly becime a vei} popul ir institution among Chn ese as well as European scholais, and at two public prize giviugs (Diocesan School and Victoria English Schools) highl}
Illus. &3 (Continued)
972 THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 19TH NOVEMBER, 1892.
successful exhibitions were held, testifying of the progress made in this branch of instruction. The proposal to establish a Swimming Bath for the use of local Schools has fallen through for want of a suitable locality. A public playground has been provided, at West Point.
19.
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.—There is no Industrial School in the Colony with the exception of the West Point Reformatory which gives to its voluntary inmates instruction in shoe-making, tailoring, book-binding and gardening. But the needlework instruction, which is an important feature in every local Girls School, has in all the Chinese Schools a distinctly industrial aspect. Thousands of girls and women among the Chinese support themselves or contribute to the support of their families by doing shoe-binding and particularly embroidery work for shops in Hongkong and Canton. In the Departmental Girls Schools and in most of the-Grant-in-Aid Schools the needlework instruction is, ;it the desire of the parents, conducted with special regard to the industrial value of Chinese female needlework in Hongkong.
20.
MEDICAL EDUCATION.—The local College of Medicine for Chinese is vigorously continuing its philanthropic work in giving several classes of Chinese students a thoroughly scientific medical and surgical education. The College is, however, in great need of a suitable building, which is likely to be provided by the munificence of the Honourable E. R. BELILIOS.
21.
SCHOLARSHIPS —The Vicloria College enjoyed in 1891 the benefit of the Morrison Scholarship, the Stewart Scholarship and four Belilios Scholarships, each of the value of sixty dollars a year. St. Joseph's College had the benefit of two Belilios Scholarships of the same value. The Medical College was aided by a Government Scholarship, the Watson Scholarship and two Belilios Scholarships.
22.
I enclose the usual Tables (I. to XVI.), containing the Educational Statistics for the year 1891 which, to some extent, have been analysed in the foregoing paragraphs.
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your most obedient Servant,
E. J. EITEL, M.A., PH. D. (TUBING.)
Inspector of Schools and Head of the Education Department.
The Honourable G. T. M. O'BRIEN, C.M.G.,
Colonial Secretary,
#c, $c, Sfc.
Illus, 43 (Continued)
Schools of this country cannot be said to be 'voluntary national schools', but are in all essential principles very similar to the Depart-mental Schools of the Colony, the only difference being that they are supported partly by local rates and partly by Imperial taxation in-stead of by Imperial taxation alone, and are managed by local Gov-ernment Boards instead of by the Central Bureau: and
? add that while approving generally his suggestion that in Hongkong the system of Grants in aid to all forms of education should be extended as far as practicable, and that the Departmental Schools should be confined (for the present at any rate) to elemen-tary education, Lord Ripon considers that one exception must be made to the latter proposition, viz. Victoria College, as his Lordship concurs in his predecessor's view .. . that Victoria College ought to be the model Secondary School of the Colony; and request Governor to instruct Dr. Eitel that on this point he must in future annual Reports written for publication refrain from arguing against what must be regarded as the settled policy of the Government:
[We must stop his incessant attempts to depreciate Victoria Col-lege and to discredit it in the eyes of the Hongkong public]
2. As to Dr. Eitel's suggestions for getting a larger number of chil-dren into the Schools (par. 10 of the Report) — he is probably right in thinking it premature to have a general compulsory law; but I think his first suggestion (a) 'to compel by law the registration and educa-tion of all purchased servant girls' is impracticable — and would be an unjust interference with domestic customs, unless we are pre-pared to go further and introduce universal compulsory education. Everything practicable should be done to improve the position of these bondservants, but I cannot see the logic or the justice of com-pelling them to be educated, if we do not compel other children to go to school...
(b)
The next proposal, to prohibit child labour seems to me to be more feasible — if as I gather it is only intended to apply to work in shops and factories and not to purely domestic labour — which latter could hardly be interfered with.
(c)
As to the Chinese Attendance Officer: ? Refer to Lord Knutsford's despatch... in which the suggestion was postponed till after the Census of 1891, and ask Governor to consider practicability of now appointing such an officer.
(d)
I would say nothing about the proposed establishment of a special School Fund, as I do not see the need for it, so long as we continue to urge the Government from time to time to extend the Educational system so far as finances allow.
(e)
As to the alleged 'absence of power 'to forcibly detain inmates of the Reformatory7: ? ask what is meant by this as Ord. 19 of 1886
appears to give the necessary power and take opportunity of asking for a report on working of that Ordinance.
3. Par. 12 criticizes rather severely (as usual) Victoria College ... To part of the criticism I have referred already. I fear that Dr. Eitel has not profited much by the reproof which the Governor administered to him last January ...
? Ask Governor to report how the arrangements... of associating Mr. Lockhart with Dr. Eitel and Dr. Wright in the examination of Victoria College worked in 1892 (? it was held last month), and whether he would recommend a continuation of that joint examina-tion, or would adopt the suggestion made by Dr. Eitel that his inspection of the College should be separated from the Headmas-ter's Examination.
The remarks as to the need of kindergarten education, of a Train-ing Institution, and of further Industrial Education need not be noticed on this occasion, as these are luxuries that we must wait for at present.
(iii) Colonial Office Minute signed by C.P. Lucas, 3 January 1893.
There is a great deal of gas in this report, and it does not seem to be worthwhile to make the comments and corrections contained in the first two pages of Mr. Johnson's minute...
The great educational want in Hongkong has always seemed to me to be the lack of provision for the children who live on boats. The late Dr. Stewart, years ago, had some idea of a ragged school61 ship, but I do not think it has ever been tried.
(iv) Draft reply from the Marquess of Ripon to Sir William Robinson, 20 January 1893.
61. The philanthropic 'ragged school' movement started in England, largely as a result of the initiative of John Pounds, a Portsmouth cobbler, in the early 1840s, and was enthusiasti-cally endorsed by such leading Evangelicals as Lord Shaftesbury, the famous factory reformer, who helped to form the Ragged School Union in 1844. Through the raising of funds and the use of voluntary teachers, efforts were made to provide a basic level of care and training for the most deprived children in order to 'convert incipient criminals to Christianity' (Horace Mann, cited in John Lawson and Harold Silver, A Social History of Education in England (London: Methuen, 1973), p. 285). In 1878, Frederick Stewart had sug-gested that a similar scheme should be adopted in Hong Kong, especially to deal with the children of the boat-population and that two hulks, one at either end of the harbour, might serve as Ragged School ships (Frederick Stewart to Robert G.W. Herbert, Esq. of the Colonial Office, 15 November 1878, in CO 129/183, pp. 390-91). The scheme received Colonial Office, but not Hong Kong Government, support.
265
[Against the reference to Eitel being told that it was the settled policy, no longer to be considered as open to question, that Victoria College should be the model secondary school of Hong Kong, ap-pears the following marginal emendation by Ripon:]
I am disinclined to say this. I think an Inspector ought to express his opinion with a large degree of freedom on the Schools he in-spects, though of course in proper terms — omit.
[In the text of Ripon's despatch:]
The proposal to compel by law the registration and education of all purchased servant girls was reported upon in Sir F. Fleming's despatch No. 215 of 2nd July 1890, and I am disposed to agree with the opinion there expressed that it would not be desirable to attempt such legislation at any rate until the condition of the Colony is ripe for the introduction of system of compulsory education. You may be aware that compulsory education has been introduced into more than one of the Protected Malay States, and with satisfac-tory results, as far as can be judged.
12. Fong Mee-yin, The First Hundred Years of Hong Kong Education (Hong Kong: China Learning Institute, 1975), pp. 68-74.
The following details relevant to the curricula practised in Anglo-Chinese grant schools during the early years of the twentieth century have been translated from the Chinese original. Class I represented the highest class at this time.
The Syllabus of Anglo-Chinese Schools
I. Class VIII.
(1)
English Reader Textbook — Royal Reader No. 1, Royal School Series Primer, T. Nelson and Sons.
(2)
English writing — includes dictation, sentence-making, callig-raphy and copy-book exercises. Textbook—Vere Foster's New Civil Service Copy Books, Nos. 1-5, Blackie & Son.
(3)
Recitation.
(4)
Colloquial. Textbook — Pictorial Language Series, The Welsh Educational Publishing Company.
(5)
Geography — emphasis on rural geography around the school. Textbook — Meiklejohn's New Geography, Meikeljohn and Hobden.
(6)
Object Lessons — knowing objects such as a cat, clock, com-pass, cow, dog, hen, horse, pig, sheep, and slate. Textbook — Regina Reading and Object Lesson Sheets, George Gill and Sons.
(7)
Arithmetic. Textbook — Loney's Arithmetic for Schools, Macmillan and Company Ltd.
Class VII.
(1)
English Reader. Textbook — Royal Reader No. 2.
(2)
English Writing. Copy books Nos. 6 & 7 for copy book exercises.
(3)
Recitation.
(4)
English Grammar — includes nouns and verbs. Textbook — J.C. Nesfield's Idiom, Grammar and Synthesis, Macmillan & Company Ltd.
(5)
Colloquial.
(6)
Geography — Hong Kong Geography.
(7)
Object Lessons — knowing objects such as bamboo, black-board, coins, fish, frog, orange, rice, tea, animals, vegetables, minerals, and water.
(8)
Arithmetic.
Class VI.
(1)
English Reader. Textbooks — Royal Reader No. 3 and Course of Hygiene, Elementary, Noronha and Company.
(2)
English Writing — includes dictation, elementary composition, and copy-book exercises (Copy Books Nos. 7-8).
(3)
Recitation.
(4)
English Grammar — includes parts of speech, plural and sin-gular, gender, proper nouns and pronouns.
(5)
Colloquial.
(6)
Geography — Gwangdong geography, Chinese geography and trade routes.
(7)
Object Lessons — knowing objects such as coal, cotton, electric tram, gold, iron, paper, shipbuilding, sugar, silk, wool.
(8)
Arithmetic.
(9)
Hygiene. Textbooks — Course of Hygiene, Elementary, Noronha & Company, and Willoughby's Hygiene for Students, Macmillan and Company Ltd.
IV. Class V.
(1)
English Reader. Textbooks — Royal Reader No. 4 and Course of Hygiene, Elementary.
(2)
English Writing — includes dictation, letter-writing (about 50 words), simple composition, and copy book exercises (Copy Books Nos. 9-10).
(3)
Recitation.
(4)
English Grammar — simple sentence structure and prefixes.
(5)
Geography — includes Asian Geography, Chinese Geography, day and night, the four seasons, latitudes and altitudes.
(6)
Object Lessons — knowing objects such as cork, fur, glass, knife, lead-pencil, leather, needle, pen, soap, sponge.
(7)
Arithmetic. Textbook — Loney's Arithmetic for Schools, Macmillan and Company Ltd.
(8)
Algebra — the relationship of addition, subtraction, multipli-cation and division. Textbook — Hall and Knight's Elementary Algebra, Macmillan and Company Ltd.
(9)
Geometry — includes the cutting of angles and lines, perpen-dicular lines, triangles, and parallel lines. Textbooks — John Carroll's Practical Geometry for Art Stu-dents, Burns and Gates Ltd., and Hall and Stevens' School Geometry.
(10)
Hygiene. Textbook — Willoughby's Hygiene for Students, Macmillan and Company Ltd.
V.
Class IV.
(1)
English Reader. Textbooks — Royal Reader No. 5 and Course of Hygiene, Elementary.
(2)
English Writing — includes dictation, letter writing (about 100 words), composition (narrative), and copy-book exercises (Copy-books Nos. 10-11).
(3)
Recitation.
(5)62 Geography — English Geography; products, trade; structure of the Hong Kong Government; tides and flow.
(6) Object Lessons — knowing objects such as barometer, cam-phor, flax and linen, India rubber, newspaper and printing, pottery, rope, salt, thermometer, wood.
62. Presumably because of a proof-reading error, '(4)', which can be quite confidently ascribed to some aspect(s) of English Grammar, is missing from Mr Fong's publication.
(7)
Arithmetic.
(8)
Algebra — simple formula.
(9)
Geometry — Euclid's Subject Matters.
(10)
Hygiene. Textbook — Willoughby's Hygiene for Students.
VI. * Syllabus for Class IV Chinese Language.
(1)
Comprehension.
Textbook — Guo-min Textbook, Books 3 & 4. Kan-shih Jih-yao,63 Chapter 7.
(2)
Context — sentence completion, questions and answers.
(3)
Vocabulary — dictation, copying, calligraphy.
VII. Syllabus for Class III Chinese Language.
(1)
Comprehension. Textbook — Guo-min Textbook, Books 5 & 6.
(2)
Special Paper — ordinary writing format (Fu-yu Sik-chi64)
(3)
Context — sentence completion, questions and answers, writ-ing format (notices, memoranda).
(4)
Vocabulary — dictation, copying, calligraphy.
VIII. Syllabus for Class II Chinese Language.
(1)
Comprehension. Textbook — Guo-min Textbook, Books 7 & 8.
(2)
Special Paper — Shang Lun, Gu-min65; the discussion of cur-rent affairs.
(3)
Context — discussion, questions and answers.
(4)
Vocabulary — dictation, copying, calligraphy.
IX. Syllabus for Class I Chinese Language.
(1)
Comprehension. Textbook — Guo-min Textbook, Books 9 & 10.
(2)
Special Paper — Mencius, Gu-min, Discussion of current affairs,
63.
The titles of the two textbooks quoted here are, of course, simply romanizations of the Chinese characters. Roughly translated, the two books might be called 'National Textbook' (see also Evidence 19 below) and Main Points of Studying Modern History7.
64.
Roughly translated as 'Women and Children: The Explanation of Terms or Elementary Vocabulary'.
65.
'Shang Lun' may be roughly translated as 'Global Discussion', and 'Gu-min' as 'the Classics'.
269
Tung-lai Po-I,66 Kan-shih Ti-gang.67
(3)
Context — discussion, questions and answers.
(4)
Vocabulary — dictation, copying.
13. Memorandum No. 38 of 22 May 1894, by Dr E.J. Eitel, Inspector of School, in CO 129/263, pp. 190-93.
The first outbreak of the bubonic plague occurred in the spring of 1894. Initially, it was the local Chinese who suffered the full brunt of the calamity68 and in a situation in which the known death toll for five or six months was more than 2,500, it is not surprising that panic ensued. The Governor, Sir William Robinson, estimated that 80,000 of the Chinese population fled Hong Kong. EiteVs memorandum indicates an important 'side-effect' of the plague, which is itself, perhaps, a comment on communication problems between Government and people in late nineteenth century Hong Kong.
Sir,
I have the honour to report on the panic which has suddenly deci-mated the attendance in the local Chinese Schools since yesterday morn-ing 21st, but particularly to-day 22nd.
2. Nature of the Panic
On Sunday 20th numerous rumours began to spread in the districts affected by the Plague (and on 21st the rumours reached also Wantsai and Tang Lung Chau and Kowloon) to the following effect:
(a)
That the Government intended to select a few young Children from each School to subject them to a surgical incision of the liver in order to obtain bile, this being the only known remedy for curing the plague.
(b)
That every School would be visited by officers who would examine every child and send to the 'Hygeia' anyone having the least boil or pimple on its body.
3. Effect
I found that to-day most of the Chinese schools in the districts af-fected by the plague have only from ten to twenty per cent, of their scholars in attendance, and a few are closed. In Sai Ying Pun, Sheung Wan, and Chung Wan I have found great variations, a very few being
66.
Roughly translated as Donglai's Academic Seminars'.
67.
Roughly translated as Main Themes in History^
68.
Also among the later victims of the Plague, however, were the Governor's wife, Lady Robinson, and other Europeans.
closed, the majority having from 26 to 40 per cent of their usual atten-dance. I am informed that Shamshuipo, Tai-kok-tsui, Yau-ma-ti, and Hunghom (resorts of the local population) have closed most schools under the effect of the panic. English teaching schools attended by Chi-nese are comparatively little affected by the scare. Hawan and Spring Gardens are at present unaffected by it.
4. Origin of the Panic
Ridiculous as these rumours appear to Europeans they seem very plausible to ignorant Chinese because excision of human flesh for curative purposes when done under the promptings of misguided filial piety is a practice encouraged by the Chinese Government. As to the question who started these rumours in Hongkong on the present occasion, I should not be surprised if it were found that the story concerning the excision of the liver to obtain bile is the malicious distortion of the native medical frater-nity who, I believe, are desirous of bringing some pressure to bear upon a Government supposed to attach great importance to school attendance. I have been told in several districts that suggestions have been made among the Guilds to threaten the Government with a stoppage of all trade and food supplies of the markets in order to extort certain medical conces-sions. As to the story concerning 'boils' of all sorts being treated by the Government as symptoms of plague, it may have its origin in a careless rendering by newspapers or in popular conversation of the word 'Bu-bonic' (plague).
5. Measures
I do not think anything very effectual can be done to remove the sug-gestions of native malice to native ignorance and suspiciousness. Distrust of the Government is still rampant among the lower classes of Chinese. Education will remove it in time. I have however gone through most of the schools in town exhorting the Children not to believe such silly ru-mours, and the Attendance Officer is doing the same in all the schools. Tomorrow, I shall visit the out-Stations for the same purpose. As the schools afford in most cases good ventilation & healthy occupation for the children, I am sure it would be a mistake to close the schools, or such a measure would scatter the children in the streets or the already over-crowded houses and thus increase the risk of infection.
14. Newspaper reports of politics in the classroom, with a vengeance.
As might be expected, the case of Yeung Chu Wan became something of a 'cause celebre'. It transpired that the murder was committed at the behest of the Police Chief in Canton and that the Acting Viceroy had earlier issued a proclamation offering a reward for the apprehension of Mr Yeung, 'dead or alive'. This involvement of the Imperial Chinese
271
Government led to a furore over the 'gross and daring violation of British territory', which
was only pushed out of the press headlines and correspondence columns by the death of
Queen Victoria. A reward of$500 was offered in Hong Kong for information leading to the
arrest of the assassins. The question of the role of the Chinese Government was discussed in
all local newspapers, most heatedly in the China Mail, in the Hong Kong Legislative Council, and in official correspondence with the Foreign Office in London.69 Eventually (on 5 April, 1903) one of the assassins was caught, was put on trial in Hong Kong (20 -21
May 1903) and executed (17 June 1903).
(a) Hong Kong Daily Press, Saturday, 12 January 1901, p. 2.
MURDER ON THURSDAY NIGHT
Schoolmaster Shot Dead
.. . It appears that shortly after six o'clock when teacher and pupils were engrossed in the studies of the day, a man suddenly entered the room, which is situated on the first floor at 52, Gage Street, and before Mr. Yeung70 had recovered from his surprise at the unexpected intrusion, or had time even to utter a word, the man whipped out a revolver and fired four shots in rapid succession at the unfortunate school master, who fell to the ground. Every one of the shots had taken effect, one entering the head and the others penetrating the left shoulder, chest and abdomen. The murderer, on completing his diabolical work, turned and fled from the room, trampling over frightened scholars who obstructed his path. Ac-cording to the statements of some of the older scholars, not a word was spoken on either side, the whole affair occupying just a few seconds .. . The murdered schoolmaster was 34 years of age and well known to his compatriots in the colony as a political reformer. Indeed, in this fact will probably be found the motive for the crime as, apart from his political views, he was on good terms with everyone ...
(b) Hong Kong Weekly Press and China Overland Trade Report, 19 January 1901.
.. . In a futile attempt to shield himself, Mr. Yeung had evidently made use of the class-book he held in his hand at the moment of being shot. One bullet had completely pierced it, while a second must have first struck it before entering the body of the victim...
69.
For example, see FOl7/1718, pp. 523 ff. For comment about the political significance of the murder and for further information about the background and repercussions, see Chen Man Yu, "Chinese Revolutionaries in Hong Kong" (unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Hong Kong, 1963), pp. 128-34.
70.
Yang Chu-yun, alias Yeung Ku-wan or Yeung Hop-kat. He was the founder and first President of the Fu Jen Literary Society. See Chronicle for 1892 above.
15. Some documents related to the discussion of separate education for the different races in Hong Kong.
The extracts presented below are related directly to Evidence 21 of Chapter 1. They may be compared with both earlier and later facts and opinions.
(a) Hong Kong Daily Press, Wednesday, 30 January 1901, p. 3, report on Bishop Hoare's speech at the Annual Prize Distribution of the Diocesan Boys' School, headlined 'Bishop Advocates European Schools for Europeans'.
. . . There were one or two things mentioned in the [annual school] report which he might call attention to. One was the great improvement in the playground, which he was sure was a very important thing. The thing which people suffered from in Hong Kong was want of room to exercise and amuse themselves in, and he was sure they were all agreed that if the school-boys were to do good work they must have good play-grounds71 .. . There was just one other point in regard to the school which he wished to mention. As he came there year after year he was very thankful for what he saw; but there was one thing he did not like to see, and he thought they should get it altered. That was the mixing of the races in the school — that was to say, the Europeans and Chinese. He thought he could say this without giving offence to either race. Of course he was an Englishman, but as they knew he had really spent more than half his life teaching Chinese boys. Therefore he did not speak in this manner through lack of sympathy with the Chinese. He loved the Chinese from the very bottom of his heart, and they had seen that day — and certainly it was borne out by his experience — that the Chinese boys were as capable of studying as European boys, and could compete with them successfully .. . He did not believe it was a good thing to put two races side by side in the school. He did not think they mixed. There was a gulf between the
71. Earlier, Frederick Stewart had also emphasized the importance of school playgrounds, especially in the context of overcrowded schools and classrooms. See his 'Annual Report on the Government Schools for 1874', in Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1875,27 February 1875,
p. 60, and Gwenneth Stokes, op. cit., pp. 21 and 57. Concern about the lack of space devoted to recreation grounds for the general public was also expressed at the time that the Po Leung Kuk applied to build a Chinese City Hall and Museum at what was then the 'Chinese Recreation Ground' at Possession Point (1882). See CO 129/199, pp. 211 ff. and CO 129/206, pp. 290 ff. Other early indications of interest in public recreation include the opening of the Botanical Gardens in 1864, the reservation of land as the Queen's Recreation Ground in Causeway Bay as a part of Hong Kong's commemoration of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897 and the negotiations between civil and military authorities from 1899 to 1902 which led to the establishment of a public park (named 'King's Park' to commemorate the coronation of Edward VII) in Kowloon. See Chronicles for the relevant years in Chapter 3 and this chapter.
Chinaman as a Chinaman and an Englishman as an Englishman, and he did not think it was a good thing for English boys to be educated side by side with Chinese boys, and he felt that it was not a good thing for Chinese boys to be educated side by side with English boys. He thought they wanted to train up the Chinaman to be a Chinaman and not half a Chinaman and half an Englishman. He liked to see a Chinaman an edu-cated man, but a Chinaman, and he would like to see the Chinese edu-cated separately. He must say he considered it a great blot on this colony
— and a very serious blot on this colony — that it provided no school where European children could go without this mixture ... It was a good thing to govern Hongkong fairly, and to govern our colonies with all due consideration for the people who formed practically the bulk of the popu-lation, but it did not seem to be a good thing to govern a colony to the neglect of the education of the children of their own race; and whilst the claims of the Chinese to a school of their own where they could get a good education ought not to be neglected, at the same time it should be one of the first duties of an English Government in an English colony to provide an education for the sons and daughters of its own people.
(b) Editorial in China Mail, Wednesday, 30 January 1901, p. 2.
... The worthy Bishop, probably unconsciously, is repeating what we have written in this column over and over again. It seems incredible that in the twentieth century British subjects living in a British Colony should have to plead for facilities for the proper education of their children. On previous occasions, we have pleaded the cause of the children from different points of view, but chiefly for the children's sake and on the plea of public expediency . . . We assert, and we are prepared to prove our assertion (though not in print) that European children in this Colony have been ruined irretrievably by intercourse with and contamination from the mixed races with whom they have had to associate in the elementary schools...
(c) The correspondence column of Hongkong Daily Press, 7 February 1901, p. 3, letter signed by Wang Chung-yu.
The speech made by the Bishop in the Diocesan Home had created quite a commotion, as will be seen from the correspondence columns of the paper. I, being a born subject of Hongkong, naturally feel myself interested in any question pertaining to the welfare of my own people and that of people of other races; and therefore feel myself under obligation to express my opinions, however meagre and puerile they may seem to others in regard to this all-absorbing topic — for all educational questions are important.
.. . The Utilitarian philosophy of Bentham can help us greatly in this
question: whether the good accruing from excluding Asiatics in certain schools can counterbalance the evil resulted therefrom. If so I am exceed-ingly glad to see this carried out to perfection for the sake of mankind at large, even at the expense of my own people; if not, I hope the Bishop and those who have followed in his wake and hailed 'the Bishop as the leader in this absolutely essential reform' will consider the matter again.
.. . Now to exclude Chinese from certain schools means to go against the law of nature and to aggravate the hatred between Chinese and foreigners...
My experience goes to show that, as a rule, European boys in school generally depreciate things Chinese, and therefore there is no need to fear that European boys may learn any bad method of thinking peculiar to the Chinese...
As Hongkong is the emporium of the Far East, it seems to me quite strange that it has not a Technical Academy, much less a University, where Chinese and foreigners can go and have equal rights and an equal footing. I would like to suggest that Queen's College might be changed into such72...
(d) Extract from a letter by the Colonial Secretary, Mr J.H. Stewart Lockhart, to Mr (later, Sir) Robert Ho Tung, 15 February 1902, in CO 129/311, p. 105.
.. . Lately, however, the Government has been induced to regard the question in another light and has arrived at the conclusion that an educa-tion given in schools attended indiscriminately by the children of various races and languages is not efficient, and that the best interests of the inhabitants of the Colony will be served by the establishment of separate schools in which the children of each race can obtain the education which is specially suited to their needs.
72. The idea that Queen's College should be open to all races harks back to the early days of the Central School (see Chronicle for 1866) and the suggestion that it should be elevated to post-secondary status was Henness/s reason for establishing the Education Commission of 1880-82. Bateson Wright, the Headmaster of Queen's College was also adamantly against his school being restricted to a Chinese intake, stating that 'personally I view the provision of different schools for different nationalities as opposed to elsewhere universally ap-proved Educational and Imperial policy, and as liable to produce racial ill-feeling, now happily unknown' and arguing the ill-effects of restricting the 'advantages' of Queen's College 'to boys in Chinese dress' at length (in his memorandum to A.M. Thomson, the Acting Colonial Secretary, of 23 April 1902, in CO 129/311, p. 70). Wang Chung-yu's letter is also interesting in that it contains an explicit reference to the need for a university, made by a locally born Chinese before the publicity given by the China Mail in 1905. See Chronicle for 1905 and Evidence 18.
(e) Extract from a letter by Mr (later, Sir) Robert Ho Tung to the Colonial Secre-tary, Mr J.H. Stewart Lockhart, 17 February 1902, CO 129/311, p. 105.
.. . It is hardly within my competence, speaking from the point of view of the educationist, to enter into any discussion on this latest decision of the Government, but I cannot refrain from an expression of my very sincere regret for so radical a change in policy and one that is so opposed to the spirit which prompted my offer of the school to the Colony .. . It will be remembered that I attached the utmost importance to the stipulation that no distinction should be drawn as regards either the nationality or creed of any scholar applying for admission to the Kowloon school... On the other hand, I have no desire that my gift should be hedged in by conditions not capable of reasonable modification. I am prepared, therefore, though with much reluctance, to yield to the request of the Government to waive my original condition to the extent desired. I do so, however, on the definite understanding that the Government, on their part, undertake to appoint for the new Yaumati school for Chinese, at least one properly qualified English master and to maintain the standard of education there on the same level as that in the Kowloon school for European children.
16. The Report of the 1902 Education Committee, signed by A.W. Brewin, Ho Kai & E.A. Irving'.73
As the Chronicle for 1902 makes clear, there was considerable dissension within the Education Committee as originally appointed, leading to the resignation of its chairman, Bishop Hoare. It is interesting to note, however, that Ho Kai, still the only Chinese member of the Legislative Council, signed the Report. As mentioned earlier and demonstrated in Evidence 17(a) below, the Secretary of State for the Colonies was not happy with several of the implications of the Report.
97. ... The Hongkong Government has never pretended to supply educa-tion to all the children within its jurisdiction, never having asked the rate-payers for the very large sum which would be needed, were it so largely to increase its responsibilities. It is equally unnecessary and undesirable that such an extended provision should be made. A very large number of the Chinese resident in Hongkong prefer to send their children to be educated in their own country: they do not pretend to be citizens, or anything more than strangers in the land; yet it would be impossible to discriminate so as to avoid taxing them for an education which they would never take advantage of. Moreover it would be necessary under the conditions contemplated to put narrow limits upon the courses of
73. See also the Chronicle for 1901 and 1902, above.
study. To suggest, for instance, that taxation should be extended in order to pay for a ten years7 course for every child in the Colony would be a 'reductio ad absurdum'.
Thus, the argument that provision should be made for the entire population leads naturally to the conclusions, firstly, that taxation should be largely increased in order to provide a smattering for the children of persons who neither ask for it nor desire it; and, secondly, that no attempt should be made to provide a thorough education ...
17. Documents illustrating differences of opinion between the Governments of Hong Kong and the United Kingdom.
It was neither the first nor the last time that the Government of Hong Kong differed
with the British Government over an educational issue, but the extracts included here have
the virtue of making the dissension very clear.
(a) Despatch by the Secretary of State for the Colonies (Joseph Chamberlain) to Sir Henry Blake, Governor of Hong Kong, 12 September 1902, in CO 129/311, pp. 48 ff.
.. . but I am not at all prepared to accept as a general principle that education should follow the lines of race; and I cannot consent to exclude any nationality from the main school of the Colony, the Queen's College.
.. . Thus the expression of opinion that in the case of the Chinese, thorough teaching of the few should be attempted rather than the more widely spread education, coupled with the condemnation of the existing Government and aided Vernacular Schools, and the evidence that Private Vernacular Schools successfully compete with schools which give free education at the Government expense, points, as I have said, to the con-clusion that Government money would be better spent if withheld en-tirely from Vernacular Schools and devoted entirely to Anglo Chinese Schools, or if such encouragement as is given to Vernacular Schools were given only in the form of a large number of free foundation scholarships, such as are suggested on pp. 10 and 12 of the report, intended to carry on boys from the private Vernacular Schools to the Government or aided Anglo Chinese Schools. I do not say that such a solution would recom-mend itself to me. Sir C.C. Smith [former Registrar-General in Hong Kong] lays down in his memorandum that 'the first duty is to maintain Vernacular schools' and certainly it would need very strong grounds to justifying withholding Government assistance from Vernacular educa-tion in a large native community such as exists at Hong Kong, thereby presumably excluding the very poorest from the benefits of education.
... Unless a definite educational principle is laid down upon which all who have interest in or knowledge of the subject are practically agreed,
and on the basis of which work will be steadily carried on year after year, I would prefer to leave matters very much as they are, gradually adopting such improvements in detail as are obviously practicable and above all taking any steps which are likely to secure good teachers.
(b) 'Special Reports on Educational Subjects, V. 14: Educational; Systems of the Chief Crown Colonies and Possessions of the British Empire, including Re-ports on the Training of Native Races, Board of Education, London, 1905', pp. 79-80; Hong Kong section written by Mr E.A. Irving, Inspector of Schools.
.. . What becomes of the hopes of those who aspire to raise the stan-dard of education in Hongkong to a uniform high level? As well hope to raise the standard of education in Charing Cross Hotel!74
... Or to consider the matter from the pecuniary stand-point, the tax-payer of Hongkong can hardly be held morally responsible for the chil-dren of alien and not over friendly fathers who have elected to make their livelihood here during a year or two.
.. . The conclusion is, that except as regards an infinitesimal agricul-tural population and an inconsiderable number of naturalized British subjects, the Colony is under no moral obligation to supply education free or nearly free.
.. . The question is one of expediency pure and simple. Answers are required to the following questions: What sum spent on education will be a good investment for the business community of the Colony (Chinese or foreign), that is, the tax-payers? What political advantage can be gained for the Empire by a more extensive course of education? To what extent is the Colony fairly chargeable with the expenses of such extended course of education? The third of these questions lies outside the scope of this report.
As to what sum spent by the tax-payer would seem in his eyes to be well invested, in the first place, he has little interest in the vernacular schools. They keep the children off the street and out of prison, and so save him from taxation to a certain extent, but the flux of the population prevents .. . any possibility of great improvement in the intelligence and honesty of the people as a whole. For the same reason, a merchant who is solely alive to his own profits would look askance on votes for reformato-ries and industrial schools. He would, on the other hand, require intelli-gent clerks, and would therefore pay willingly for schools which turned
74. This comment may well be in the mind of a later Director of Education, T.R. Rowell, when he wrote in the 1946-47 Annual Report, 'For the considerable semi-permanent popula-tion little can be* done educationally. It would be rather like "setting up a school on Victoria Station for those who pass through"/ (Education Department, Hong Kong, Annual Report for 1946-47, p. 20).
out a good stock of these, both Portuguese and Chinese, with a thor-oughly mercantile education. The Chinese clerks would also have a work-ing knowledge of their own written language. He would probably be wise in his generation in objecting to pay for training a mere smattering of English, as the necessary minimum of pidgin English can easily be picked up by shop boys and domestic servants out of school. In other words, he woruld prefer to an even but low standard, an education which aimed at advancing the more promising pupils.
On the other hand, an imperial policy may demand more of educa-tion than this. It may regard the Chinese boys and girls who leave the Hongkong schools every year as so many pro-English missionaries. And, for my part, I believe that no child can have spent two years in a Govern-ment or Missionary school without having acquired a glimmering of respect for English men and methods. But multiplication of schools means addition of taxes.75
18. The proposal to establish a university in Hong Kong.
As the works of Harrison and Mellor make clear, there were two principal 'models' for possible university development by the British in or near China during the early years of the twentieth century. One might be linked with a Christian and Oxbridge approach, the other with a secular and the newer British 'civic' or 'provincial' university approach. It was the latter which gained ground in Hong Kong. As will be seen below, considerable emphasis was placed on British Imperial rather than Hong Kong colonial interests in the aim to 'serve China'.
(a) 'An Imperial University for Hong Kong', editorial in China Mail, Friday, 15 December 1905, p. 4.
.. . On careful examination it will be found that the education pro-vided in the schools of Hongkong is of an elementary nature. To judge from the reports of the various headmasters this is to a large extent the fault of the boys themselves in that they leave school too early to proceed to a higher standard of work. But if the British Empire intends to hold its own and spread its influence equally with its rival of the North [Japan] something far more than elementary education is needed.
What is needed is a regularly established system of higher education in Hongkong — or, in other words, a University. If such an institution be
75. The paramount place of finance in Irving's mental set was long-lasting. In 1921, near the end of his career, he commented as Director of Education, about a proposal from a member of the Commission on Child Labour for the introduction of compulsory education in Hong Kong, 'The first point to be considered is the money7! See also Chapter 5, Evidence 4.
set up so near to him the Chinaman of the Southern provinces, and probably some of the Northern ones, will prefer to take advantage of it rather than of his own universities, for there is no doubt as to the eager-ness of the rising generation of Chinese to absorb Western ideas and Western civilization. Such an institution could not be expected to pay its own way at first; there we are at a disadvantage when we compare the small salaries of the Japanese professors and teachers with the much heavier ones necessary in the case of Europeans. The fees must of neces-sity be low, at any rate in the earlier stages of its career. But a university established in Hongkong would rank as an Imperial asset and public money spent on it would be to the full as well spent as far as the prosper-ity of the Empire is concerned as, say, the yearly subsidy which provides the Ameer of Afghanistan with guns to defend India .. .
(b) Letter from Geo. H. Bateson Wright, in China Mail, Monday, 18 December 1905, p. 5.76
.. . If there is to be a Hongkong University it must be a first class article, no sham. For a site, three or four acres of fairly level ground would be required, this might doubtless be found in the New Territory. Apart from a Lecture Hall, Classrooms, Dining Hall, Laboratories, &c, there should be five residences for as many professors each capable of accom-modating at least 30 boarders. A non-resident University in Hongkong would ipso facto be a failure. The Chinese must live in an English, not a native atmosphere, their food, manner of living and daily surroundings should be thoroughly English ...
Twenty years ago, Sir George Bowen founded the biennial Govern-ment scholarships, value ￡200 per annum for four years, this attained an annual maximum cost of ￡450 including the Passage Money. If the idea of giving Chinese boys European University education is seriously enter-tained, the Government might be approached upon the desirability of restoring these scholarships. Even if their number were increased, the cost would be more reasonably within the means of the Colony; and the suggestion certainly enjoys this advantage, that it can, if necessary, be suppressed at any time without leaving the Colony saddled with an awkward and inalienable incubus.
76. It should be noted that an alternative project that had received the support of Sir John Pope Hennessy (see Evidence 4 and f.n. 52, as well as Evidence 7) and several others (in-cluding the correspondent, Wang Chung-yu, in 1901 — see Evidence 15(c)) was to provide some form of higher education in Hong Kong by elevating the status of the Central School/ Victoria College/Queen's College. The opposition of Bateson Wright, the Headmaster of Queen's College, to the proposal for an Imperial University by the China Mail may, ^here-fore, be partly the result of his feeling that his own school was being spurned.
(c)
'Imperial University at Hongkong', editorial in China Mail, Monday, 18 De-cember 1905, p. 4.
. . . We are not in favour of running a University on the lines of a steam laundry — to pay dividends. We are not endeavouring to belittle the usefulness of existing institutions, we are only endeavouring to ex-tend their utility — and enhance the prestige of the Empire ...
(d)
Letter from 'Pro B. Publico' to the China Mail, Tuesday, 19 December 1905, p. 5.
.. . [The correspondent summarizes and then responds to the points made by Bateson Wright] Why should we saddle ourselves with the education of John China-man? The finest and noblest poem I have ever read begins with
'Take up the white man's burden Send forth the best ye breed'
That should be an all—sufficient answer...
(e) Letter from H.N. Mody to A.H. Rennie,7719 February 1908, in 'The Conception and Foundation of the University of Hong Kong, 1908-1913', Miscellaneous Documents, No. 3 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Library).
I have gone carefully through the Governor's letters and the docu-ment signed by Francis Clark [of the Hongkong College of Medicinel, and have also perused the plan, and wish you would kindly inform His Excellency that I do not approve of the site named by him [in Taiping-shan]. I have left the matter entirely to your good judgment, as you first suggested the idea to me, and I have eyery confidence in you, my good friend, and you may have a lak and a half of dollars for the building of a University if you are satisfied with the site and all other arrangements. I do think that when a private citizen offers to expend some $150,000 for the benefit of the public, surely the Government could arrange endowment of this most necessary institution.
I saw in yesterday's paper that the Germans are thinking of teaching their language in a University in Kiauchau, why cannot we get in ahead of them?
77. Alfred Herbert Rennie established the flour mill at Junk Bay in 1907, entering into a partnership with Sir Paul Chater and Hormusjee Nowrojee Mody. On the failure of this business venture and in the midst of the negotiations between Mody and Lugard, Rennie committed suicide by drowning himself in Junk Bay.
I cannot see any use in meeting His Excellency on this subject, as I leave everything to you. Please apologise to the Governor for my not going to see him.
(f) Sir Frederick Lugard, Governor of Hong Kong to the Governor General, Canton, 20 January 1909, in 'The Conception and Foundation of the University of Hong Kong...', No. 74a.
Your Excellency,
You are aware that this British Colony has at all times exhibited a desire to act in friendly cooperation with your Government, and to afford any assistance in its power. These intentions have been evident from the effect given to applications for the extradition of criminals, from the fact that the Government has declined to allow revolutionists to reside here, and (since I have been here) by the enactment of laws to prevent the publication of seditious literature, and to prohibit the trade in prepared opium. In these and other ways this Colony has endeavoured to press its friendliness. Soon after I came to Hong Kong the idea occurred to me, that in no way could we show our sympathy with the desire of China to educate her students in western sciences, than by establishing here a University where students might be able to obtain degrees in no way inferior to those granted in Europe and America, and equally recognised by all nations. This would enable Chinese scholars to acquire degrees without being put to the great expense entailed by going to foreign countries. They would study here among their own race and not become denationalized, and separated for long years from their families — re-turning perhaps with revolutionary ideas, and having lost their pride in their nation and their patriotism. .. . We need considerable funds to enable us to give effect to the scheme, and I trust Your Excellency will shew your approval and interest in it by subscribing to them.
19. 'Report of the Director of Education for the Year 1912', in Administrative Reports, 1912, Appendix N, pp. N3 ff.
Barlow's Report certainly hastened the drafting of an Education Ordinance to effect some form of control over the Chinese schoob, especially those in Kowloon and the New Territories about which little had hitherto been known. It also reveals other facts and opinions.
... Report by Mr. [R.C.] Barlow ... Vernacular Day Schools (Boys)
During the recent inspection of the Private Schools (Chinese) in Hongkong and Kowloon I was, with two or three exceptions, courteously received, and had very little difficulty in obtaining the information I sought; the exceptions were inclined to be suspicious and gave particulars unwillingly. 1 or 2 schools closed very early, no doubt to avoid inspection. In many cases the pupils were under the impression that Hongkong was Chinese Territory, and apparently no effort has been made to enlighten them; it would appear in some instances that the idea had been fostered. It would be quite an easy matter to imagine some of these schools to be situated in the heart of Canton. During the trouble in Canton many people came to Hongkong for shelter and opened schools, and it seems as if they did not wish to recognize that they were under British protection. Some of the children were quite amazed at the idea of a foreigner being able to speak and read a little Chinese. The disrespectful terms applied to foreigners were heard on a few occasions.
Several of the schools appear to be run by people, who, for the time being, are out of employment, and have therefore turned to teaching. In some cases the teachers appeared to have outside employment, and only spent a short time in school; not that this makes much difference, as in many cases the children would have been better off left to themselves.
In many schools not the slightest effort is made to advance with the times, the methods applied 100 years ago being considered quite good enough. A number of teachers thought that if they included 1 or 2 Kwok Man Readers78 and a little badly-taught arithmetic in their course of studies, they were quite abreast of the times; generally in these cases the Kwok Man Readers were scarcely used; sometimes it was difficult to find them, or the boys who were supposed to study them. Many of the teach-ers had not the slightest idea of classification ...
The parents should be made to see very clearly that their children are wasting about three-quarters of their school-time, and wasting it in some cases in dark and evil-smelling places. In many instances little effort had been made to keep the places clean and in some great effort had been made to exclude the light of day. It may be safely said that some of the premises are only cleaned when the Sanitary Board 'cleansing' takes
78. The 'Kwok Man Readers' (or to adopt more modern romanization of putonghua rather than an older form of romanizing Cantonese, the 'Guomin bidu' — 'Basic Reading for Citizens') were patriotic primers, which emphasized the value of education, the military spirit and loyalty to the state, first appearing in Zhili province under Yuan Shikai in 1906. They were associated in the minds of many Chinese with modern ideas about mass education. See Sally Borthwick, Education and Social Change in China (Stanford: Hoover Insti-tute Press, 1983), pp. 90,113 and 122.
283
place. Some of the schools were positively unhealthy, being used as living and sleeping apartments, and in some cases coolies were asleep in the bunks that occupied 2 or 3 sides of the room; some of the premises are also used as workshops. In some instances it was noticed that the teacher was not at all particular about his appearance, and his pupils followed his example.
Supervision is very badly needed in the majority of the Private Schools; with even a casual supervision and a workable and useful syllabus many of these schools would improve by 50 per cent in a short time ...
20. The Education Ordinance and reactions to it.
Even if the language of official legislation is pedestrian, it reveals much about the intentions of the legislators. But the expression of opinion within correspondence pages of the local press or in Colonial Office minutes can be even more revealing.
(a)
'An Ordinaftce to Provide for the Registration and Supervision of Certain Schools (Popularly Known as the Education Ordinance), 1913', in Hong Kong Government Gazette, 8 August 1913, pp. 344 ff. (Illus. 4.4).
(b)
Extract from The Liberty of the British Subject', by F.B.L. Bowley,79 in the Correspondence Columns of the South China Morning Post, 16 July 1913, p. 6.
I have been surprised to see no comments in the press on the manner in which the liberty of the British subject in this Colony is being more and more restricted by a Government which, whilst no doubt actuated by the most laudable intentions, seeks to gain its objects by most autocratic and inquisitorial legislation.
.. . Imagine a ritualistic or atheistic governor, or a creature of Lloyd George in charge of local affairs.
He might close all the denominational schools unless they chanced to follow his own particular sect; or he might close all the undenominational schools: he might prohibit the reading of the Bible or the 'Descent of Man,' or place Shakespeare on the Index Expurgatorius.
... It is no doubt most desirable to prevent the teaching of sedition or immorality, but surely there are other means available than this sledge-hammer legislation?
This Colony is remarkably strong in educational experts and enthusiasts...
79. Bowley was a prominent barrister who was active in the local government reform movement attempting to secure greater autonomy from Britain basically for the British inhabitants of Hong Kong. His letter also appeared in the Daily Press (p. 3) on the same day.
344 THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, AUGUST 8, 1913.
HONGKOKG.
No. 26 OF 1913.
An Ordinance to provide for the r ^istratiun and supervision of certain schools.
I assent to this OrdiDunce.
^ F. H. MAY, V ' ) Governor.
[8th August, 1913]
B E it enacted by the Governor of Hongkong, with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council thereof, us follows :—
PART 1.—PBELIMINABY.
1. This Oidinance m.y be cited as the Education Ordinance, 1913.
2. For the puipoi-es of this Ordinance : —
"Diiector" means the Director of Education ap-pointed under the provisions of section 4 of this Ordinance.
"Exempted Srhool" means a school which has obtained a certificate of exemption fiom supervision under the provisions of Part III of this Ordinauce.
" Existing School" means any school in existence at the date of the coming into operation of this Ordinance.
" Government School" means u school entirely maintained and controlled by the Government.
"Inspector" means an inspector appointed under the provisions of section 4 of this Ordinance.
"Manager" means any person taking port in the management or teaching of a school. The master of a school or if there be more than one master of such school then the head master or if there be no head inusier then the master who is in the opinion of the Director the master in oh urge of such school shall in the absence of proof to the contrary be deemed to be the muuager.
"Military School" means a school entirely maintain-ed and coutioiled by the Military Authorities.
"New School" means a school stnrted after the dat. of the coming into operation of this Ordi-nance.
" Register" means the Register of Schools kept under the provisions of section 18 of this Ordinance.
" Registered School" means a school registered in accordance with the provisions of this Ordi-nance.
" Regulations" mean regulations made under the provisions of section 12 of this Ordinance.
" School" means a place where ten or more persons are being or are habitually taught whether in one or more Clashes.
"Sub-Inspector" means a snb-iuspeotor appointed under the provisions of section 4 of this Ordi-nance.
Illus, 4.4 'An Ordinance to Provide for the Registration and Supervision of Certain Schools, 1913'.
THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, AUGUST 8, 1913. 345
3. The provisions of this Ordinance shall not applv to : Schools to (a.) Government Schools. ￡.￡ ^ (b.) Military Schools. does not
app y*
(c.) Such other schools as the Goveruor-in-Couucil may at nny time by notification published in the Gazette direct.
4.—(1.) It shall be lawful for the Governor to appoint Appoint-
^ent of
such person as he may think fit to be Director of t . Education for the purposes of this Ordinance. Education.
(2.) It shall be lawful for the Governor to nppoint such Appoint-peisons as he may think fit to be Inspectors and .Sub- ment of Inspectors of Schools for the purposes of this Ordinance. Inspectors
Inspectors
of Schools.
(3.) The Director of Education, the Inspectors of Payment of
^irector>^
Schools and the Sub-Inspectors of Schools shall be paid
such remuneration as the Governor may from time to time and^'ub^
determine. Inspectors.
5. Subject to the exceptions contained in section 3 of this All schools
to Ve
Ordinance every school in the Colony whether such school
is in existence at the date of the cotniug into operation iegl& ei
of this Ordinance or whether such school comes into
existence after the date of the coming into operation of
this Ordinance shall be registered under the provisions of
this Ordinance and any school not so registered shall be
deemed to be an unlawful school.
6.—(1.) Any person who is the manager of an unlawful Penalty for school shall beguilty of an offence against the provisions of maintenance this Ordinance and may be prosecuted before any Magistrate school*"* " upon the complaint of the Director and shall be liable upon summary conviction to a fine not exceeding $500 and to a further fine of $20 in respect of each day during which such unlawful school shall remain open after the date of such conviction.
(2.) Any Magistrate upon the complaint of the Director Closing of shall order that any unlawful school shall be closed unlawful
scbDo1
and it shall be lawful for such Magistrate to give effect -
to such order in such manner as he may deem fit.
PART II.—REGISTRATION OF SCHOOLS.
A.—Existing Schools.
7. After the first day of July, 1914, it shall not be Existing lawful for any person to manage, teach in or maintain any schools existing school in this Colony to which the provisions of m.stbc this Ordinance apply unless and until such person shall have applied for and obtained a certificate of registration of such school in manner hereinafter provided.
8.— (K) In order that an existing school may obtain a Registra-certificate of registration referred to in section 7 of this tion;how Ordinanre it shall be irecessary for the manager of such applied for. school within six months from the date of the coming into operation of this Ordinance to apply to the Director for a certificate of registration. Such application shall be in the form and giving the particulars prescribed in form 1 of the Schedule to this Ordinance.
(2.) In the event of the manager of any such school pena]ty if referred to in sub-section (1) of this section failing to application make such application within such period such school shall not made. at the expiration of such period become"and be an unlaw-ful school within the meaning of this Ordinance.
(3.) If the Director is of the opinion that any school Registration in respect of which an application for registration is made when under the provisions of this sectiou should be registered he §ranted-shall register the same and shall issue to the manager of such school a certificate of registration which shall be in the form set forth in form 2 of the Schedule to this Ordinance.
Illus. 4.4 (Continued)
34G THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, AUGUST S, 1913.
And ween (4.) If the Director is of the opinion that any school refused. 'm respect of which an application for registration is
Appeal to Governor-
in-Council.
ln.nminfMl.
New schools must be regis ere opening.
Procedure when apply-new school1
Kcgistration: when granted.
And when refused.
Appeal to Governor in-Council.
Exemption froin supervision,
When granted : "ffVt*
Cancclla-non of exemption, made under the provisions of this section should not be registered he shall give to the manager of such school a notice in writing specifying his objections to the registra-tion of the school, and requiring the manager within one month from the receipt of such notice Jo take such steps as may be necessary to remove the eauaes of such objec-tions and informing him of his right to appeal to the Gov-eruor-in-Council.
(5.) If the manager shall not within the said period of on e raontu either comply with the requirements of such
. , . . \ J . , * . ,
notice to the satisfaction of the r Director or appeal to the Governor-in-Council, or if on appeal to the Governor-in-Council the decision of the Director shall be upheld, such school shall become and be an unlawful school within the meaning of this Ordinance.
B.—New Schools.
9- It shall not be lawful for any person to open, start, manage, teach in or maintain any new school in this Colony unless and until such person shall have applied for an-d obtained a certificate of registration of such school in manner hereinafter provided.
10.—(1.) Any person desiring to open, start or maintain a new school in this Colony shall make application for per-
miss on so to do in tn e 10rQ1 an<*
' giving the particulars prescribed in form 3 of the Schedule to this Ordinance.
(2.) If the Director is of the opinion that any school in respect of which an application is made under the pro- visions of sub-section 1 of this seetiou should be registered he shall register the same and shall issue to the manager of such school a certificate of registration which shall be in the form set forth in form 2 of the Schedule to this Ordinance.
(3.) If the Director is of the opinion that any school in lespect of which an application for registration is made under the provisions of this section should not be registered he shall give to the manager of such school a notice in writing specifying his objections to the registration of the school, and calling upon him to meet such objections either by amending his application or otherwise and informing him of his right to appeal to the Governor-in-Couneil.
(*‧) If the manager shall not. after receipt of such notice meet sirch objections to the satisfaction of the Director or if, o n appeal to the Goveruor-in-Council, the decision of the Director shall be upheld, such school if opened, started or maintained, shall be deemed to be an uuiawful school within the meaning of this Ordiuauce.
PAIIT HI. —EXEMPTION OF SCHOOL FROM SUPERVISION.
11.—(1.) It shall be lawful for the manager of any rc- gistered school to apply to the Director for exemption from supervision of such school.
(2.) If the Director is of opinion that any school in res- pect of which an application for exemption from supervision
*ias ^eeQ maue un(*er tue
provision of this section should be so exempted, he shall in his discretion exempt the same, and shall issue to the manager a certificate of ex-emption from supervision in the form set forth in form 2 of the Schedule to this Ordinance and snch school shall thereupon become subject only to the provisions of sections 12 (a), (b) and (e), 14 (2), 18* 19 and 20 of this Ordinance.
Jt sna11 ue
(30 lawful for the Director at any time and at his discretion by notice in writing to withdraw his certificate of exemption from supervision referred to in this section ; and thereupon such school shall cease to be
an exempted school.
Illus. 4.4 (Continued)
CONSOLIDATION, CONFLICT AND CONTROL
287
THE HONGKONG GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, AUGUST 8, 1913. 347
PART IV.— CONTROL AND SUPERVISION OP SCHOOLS.
12. It shall be lawful for the Governor-in-Council to Power to make regulations and from time to time to resciud or -\ ary .overnor-in-, ° . ,. e J Council to
the same providing for;— mak c (a.) the hygienic character and the proper sanita- regulations
tion of schools or school buildings ; relative to
c schools.
(6.) the methods of enforcement of discipline in schools; '" (c.) the prohibition in registered schools of the / use of any boot, the use of which appears undesirable. {(J.) the proper keeping of school registers and books of account at;registered schools ; (c.) any other matter regarding the proper conduct and efficiency of schools.
13.
All regulations made under the provisions of the Regulations preceding section shall be published in the Gazette and t obe. shaJl be of fall force and effect as from the date of such Publ'sh^
.... in (razette. publication.
14.
— (1.) It shall be the duty of the Director to inspect Inspection personally or to cause to be iuspected by an inspector or of registeicd
scnools
sub-inspector at least once in every year every registered -school for the purpose of ascertaining if all the regulations made under the provisions of section 12 of this Ordi-nance are being complied with and if such school is being properly and efficiently carried on and if such school is necessary for educational purposes.
(2.) It shall be the duty of the Director to inspect Inspection personally at lea->t once a year every exempted school for o f exempted
schools
the purpose of ascertaining whether the regulations made -under the provisions of section 12 (a), (b) and (e) of this Ordinance are being complied with and whether having regard to the general nature and conduct of the school it is such that it may properly continue to be exempt from unpen isiou.
15.
For the purpose of carrying out. the provisions of Eight of section 14 of this Ordinance it shall be lawful for the f°spectm<' Director or any inspector or sub-inspector to visit and officers. " enter upon any school at any time during school hours.
16.
If as a result of any inspection made under the Effect of provisions of section 14 of this Ordinance it shall be made inspection. to appear to the Director to his satisfaction that any of the legnlations made under the provisions of section 12 of this Ordinance is not being or has not been complied with or that such school is not being properly or efficiently carried on ho may by notice in writing to the manager of such school call upon such manager to comply with or cause to be complied with any such regulation which is not being complied with at such school or to carry on such school in a proper and efficient manner before the expira-tion of such period not being less than oue month as may by the Director be determined in snch notice and if at the expiration of such peiiod so determined in such notice such manager has failed to comply with any requisition made in such notice it shall be lawful for the Director to strike such school off the register and such school shall forthwith be deemed to be an unlawful school within the meaning of this Ordinance.
17.
If as a result of any inspection made .under the Farther provisions of section 14 of this Oidinance it shall be made effect of to appear to the Director to his satisfaction that any such "^P^ 10 " -school is not necessary for educational purposes he shall in writing notify snch fact to the manager of such school and at the expiration of a period of three months or of such further period as the Director may allow from the date of such notification he shall strike such school off the register and in the event of such school continuing in existence after such date it shall be deemed to be an unlawful school within the meaning of this Ordinance.
Illus. 4.4 (Continued)
Register of Schools.
Appeal from decision of Director.
Notification of right of appeal to Governor-in-Council.
Apreal to Governor-in-Council.
Power of
Governor-in-Council to close school.
Abolition of Chinese Vernacular Educational Board.
PART V.—-GENERAL.
18.
The Director shall keep a Register of Schools in which shall be entered the name and the name of the man-ager of every registered aud exempted school and such particulars in connection therewith as may from time to time he required for the purposes of carrying out the provisions of this Ordinance.
19.
If any person against whom any decision of the Director has been made is dissatisfied with such decision he may appeal from such decision to the Governor-in-Council whose decision upon such matter shall be final and conclusive provided that any such appeal shall be notified in writing to the Clerk of Councils within one mouth from the date of the communication of the decisiou of the Director.
20 . Every notice given by the Director under the provisions of sections 16 or 17 shall contaiu a note to the effect that the manager of the school has a right to appeal to the Governor-in-Council from any decision of the Director within one month from the receipt of the notice.
21. The grounds of every appeal shall be concisely stated in writing and delivered to the Clerk of Councils who shall give the appellant seven days notice of the hearing of the appeal, and shall at the same time furnish the appellant with a copy of any evidence or documents submitted by the Director for the consideration of the Governor-in-Council. The appellant may, if he so desire, be present at the hearing of such appeal and be heard in support thereof.
22 . If it shall appear to the Governor-in-Council that any school is being conducted in such a manner as to be prejudicial to the interests of this Colony or of the public or of the pupils of such school it shafl be lawful for the Governor-in-Council to declare such school to be an unlaw-ful school within the meaning of this Ordinance :
Provided that before making such declaration the Governor-in Council shall cause notice to be given to the manager of the intention to make such declaration and of the grounds on which it is intended to be made, and calling upon the manager of such school to show cause why such declaration should not be made, and such manager shall have a right of audience before the Council prior to the making of the declaration.
23 . The Chinese Vernacular Educational Board consti-tuted by Order-in-Council dated the 7th September, 3911, is hereby abolished.
Passed the Legislative Council of Hongkong, this 7th day of August, 1913.
C. CLEMEKTI,
Clerk of Councils.
Assented to by His Excellency the Governor, the 8th day of August, 1913.
CLAUD SEVERN,
Colonial Secretary.
Illus. 4.4 (Continued)
289
(c) A Colonial Office Minute, 14 April 1913, in CO 129/400, p. 92.
What the Governor wants apparently to do is to get absolute con-trol over all schools except Government and Military schools through a system of compulsory registration. The reason . . . seems to be chiefly political, i.e., the Governor wants to prevent the dissemination of anti-foreign views in native schools ...
These are very large powers and I have considerable doubt80 whether it is really necessary to adopt such measures for dealing with possible anti-foreign propaganda in the schools...
21. Development of the Tung Wah Hospitab (1870-1960), complied by the Board of Directors, 1960-1961 (Hong Kong: Tung Wah Hospitals, 1961) (translated from the Chinese).
The Tung Wah Group of Hospitab is a classic example of a Chinese voluntary association, which from Confucian principles, took seriously and actively promoted the welfare of the poorer members of the Chinese community. The original motivation for its establishment included an awareness of the need for a hospice and, more generally, for treatment by Chinese medicinal methods. As it developed and adopted new, non-medical responsibilities, the Tung Wah Group became a paternalistic and civic-minded body whose committee usually had overlapping membership with the Po Leung Kuk and the District Watch Committee and might even have had some claims to be regarded as 'the Chinese Executive Council of Hong Kong'.81
The Development of the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals' primary schools and
planning the construction ofsecondary schools.
Compared with others, the Tung Wah Group of Hospital's system of Free Schools has a long history in Hong Kong. For eighty years, from 1880 up to the present, the organization has been contributing to the advance-ment of education. The following paragraphs describe the development of TWGH's Free Schools and their present conditions.
80.
Despite these misgivings held by some senior officials, the Secretary of State for the Colonies did not withhold his approval from the Ordinance.
81.
See H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 58, 65, 91 and 104-29. See also Elizabeth Sinn, The Tung Wah Hospital 1869-1896: A Study of a Medical, Social and Political Institution' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Hong Kong, 1987), especially Chapter 4.
Initial stages in the process of running Free Schools
Eighty years ago, the Chairman of the TWGH, Mr. Leung Wan Hon and the Directors, Lee Man Tak, Chi Sing Lam, and others, were con-cerned about the plight of poor children in Hong Kong. They believed that, in view of the fact that poor children who missed schooling would remain illiterate as adults, not only would they have difficulties earning a living, but, even worse, they would be open to exploitation by evil people and thus be tempted to perform illegal actions. In this way, the whole of society would be adversely affected. In this situation, from the social service point of view, it seemed clear that attention and assistance needed to be given to the education of the young. Free education should, there-fore, be provided as a form of Charity. Local merchants and gentry fervently supported this idea of running Free Schools. They handed over the premises of the central district school (next to the Man Mo Temple) to the Tung Wah organization to set up the Man Mo Temple Free School. Teachers were employed to teach at the elementary level and, thereafter, the system of Tung Wah Free Schools began its glorious history.
As a part of our establishment of Free Schools, not only were poor children exempted from paying fees, but, as an inducement towards education, they were also given free stationery and textbooks. The annual expenditure, including the payment of teachers (240 taels annually), sub-sidies and miscellaneous charges (about 10 taels), did not exceed 500 taels and was borne by the Man Mo Temple Committee.
The Free School's curriculum was based mainly on the Three Character Classic and the One Thousand Characters Classic. At a higher level, the Four Books were taught. The objectives were to teach pupils how to read and write, to calculate, and to behave properly. We had no idea that such great social interest would be aroused by our scheme and that the school would progress so rapidly, with such important attainments as have been achieved by the present day.
At that time [c.1880], people from all walks of life were aware of the importance of knowledge and education. Not only were well-to-do fami-lies keen to urge their children to study hard, the illiterates also wanted their children to receive education. Although there were many English and Chinese schools already in existence, the school fees were so high that not many people could afford to make use of them. Once they knew that there were Free Schools, they were eager to gain a place for their children.
In those days, most rich people were ill-disciplined because teachers were afraid that strict control of pupils might infuriate the headmaster who needed to keep the parents happy. On the other hand, teachers operating in the free schools financed by the Man Mo Temple had no such worries. Indeed, they were strict teachers, serious about their pupils' academic achievements and about their conduct. This policy certainly won the applause of many parents.
In a couple of years, the number of pupils had increased so rapidly that even with additional teachers, it was impossible to meet the demand for admission. Consequently, the Directors felt obliged to draw up a set of conditions to cover successful applications. First, applicants should pos-sess an affirmation by their neighbours that they really were poor. Sec-ondly, they should be over 13 and under 15 years of age. Thirdly, disre-garding the mental abilities of pupils, they should not stay at school for more than five years.
In 1893, because the Man Mo Temple Free School was so crowded, the Directors of the TWGH decided to set up three more Free Schools in Queen's Road West.
In 1897, two Free Schools were established in Sai Ying Pun and Yau Ma Tei, with the necessary additional teachers employed by the TWGH. In 1904, two more classes were opened and as many as eight new teachers employed. Mr. Chan Yik Wan, Director of the Tung Wah Hospital Board, was appointed part-time inspector of our schools. In those days, each teacher was responsible for teaching 30 pupils. The principles of educa-tion were confined to ritual, honour, and ceremony. This was characteris-tic of the initial stage of running Free Schools.
Because the number of children failing to obtain schooling was still great, the Directors decided to open more Free Schools. Fourteen Free Schools, financed by the Man Mo Temple, were subsequently set up in Bridges Street, Centre Street, Queen's Road East, Ladder Street, Queen's Road West, Tai Yuen Street, Yeang Shuen Street, Yau Ma Tei, etc. At the same time, there were two Free Schools financed by the Kwong Fuk Temple situated in Ladder Street and Bridges Street; two Free Schools financed by the Tin Hau Temple were set up in Yau Ma Tei and one Free School financed by the Hung Sing Temple was established in Wanchai. Schools were named after the temples from which they got their financial support. In other cases, the family name of the head teacher was used — for example, Tsui School, Wong School, etc.
Innovation in tlie course of development
Amongst all the Free Schools, the Yau Ma Tei School received the largest number of applicants for admission. It was the only Free School in Kowloon, but it was too small to be able to admit all candidates for admission. A type of lottery was introduced to ensure fair treatment of applications. At the suggestion of Directors, Leung Pui Chi, Chow Siu Kee, and others, tallies were issued to applicants before the commence-ment of the school term. Those who received the lucky tally would have priority over the others for admission. The unlucky ones had to wait for a further year.
It has been a practice for more than fifty years that at the end of each
school year, all teachers would foregather to be appraised by the Direc-tors. Teachers of high calibre would be re-employed. Others had to resign. Throughout the year (as calculated by the lunar calendar), holidays were confined to festivals.
In 1905, Director, Chow Siu Kee, recognizing that many schools [in China and Hong Kong] were adopting a new, more text-book centred approach in teaching, suggested that all TGWH Free Schools should update their teaching by following this newer approach. The Man Mo Temple then distributed some $150 for purchasing textbooks in Chinese on the Chinese Language, Ethics, etc. Pupils could go to the Man Mo Temple Free School to buy suitable textbooks. This was the first innova-tion in the development of modern teaching methods in our schools. However, the new books were not well received by the teachers and parents. Only a few were sold. The remainder were distributed to the pupils as prizes and used for supplementary reading.
In January 1907, when the school term began, all the Tung Wah Free Schools were over-subscribed. The Free Schools on Hong Kong island had to adopt the 'tally-system' introduced by the Yau Ma Tei Free School. It was discovered, however, that this system could easily lead to corruption. The fact that some parents sold the 'lucky tally7 to parents of rejected candidates inevitably affected the good name of the school. To prevent falsification, the Directors, including Tang Chi Ngor, Ho Dai Sang, etc., ruled that all applicants who drew the lucky tally7 had to have a photo-graph taken of themselves in the studio run by Director Yu Bo Sum and that teachers were to check these photographs when the pupils came to register. Although the procedure was rather complex, it eradicated imper-sonation and photographic identification thereafter became part of the regulations.
In 1908, the Chairman, Mr. Tarn Hok Bor, and Directors, Chan Lok Chuen, Ng Hon Sai, and others, came to the conclusion that the appoint-ment of teachers based solely on personal recommendations gave rise to a number of defects. In the first place, the recommendation might not necessarily reflect an accurate picture of the applicant. And if teachers turned out to be incompetent, it was only at the end of the year, when the appraisal was carried out, that their employment could be terminated. Worst of all, because of this limiting time factor, a replacement exercise had to be completed within half a month. In these circumstances, not only was the opening of the school likely to be delayed, but the progress of the pupils was also adversely affected. It was, therefore, suggested that all teaching posts under the TWGH should be advertised and that teachers should be employed only after passing an examination. With the consent of the whole Board of Directors, Lee Chi Kwai was elected the Examiner of the year, responsible for marking all the scripts. Thereafter, this prac-tice became a part of the established procedures.
To encourage teachers, the mock-examination scripts of a few of the best pupils were sent to the Tung Wah Directors. After they had evalu-
ated these scripts, they offered the teachers, as a token of distinguished work, $3 for each script with the highest score. Thus, the TWGH examina-tion system was established.
22. Enrolments in Government and Grant Schools, 1877-97 (Illus. 4.5).
Once again, reservations must be expressed about the reliability of the statistics upon which the following graph is based. They are taken either from Hong Kong Government Gazettes or the Blue Books for the appropriate year, but should be regarded as estimates of enrolment figures rather than the product of a genuine count. Readers of the original documents should be aware that, because of the 'dual system', enrolment figures for the Central School/Victoria College/Queen's College were sometimes not included in the totals for 'Government Schools'. The stacked column graph below illustrates the disparity be-tween the enrolment figures for the two genders, especially in Government schoob. The traditional Chinese preferential treatment for males might abo explain why, in the reduc-tion of the school enrolments caused by the outbreak of the plague in 1894 and several succeeding years, the drop is less marked for girb in both Government and Grant Schools. The years 1877-97 span the offices (part or whole) of three Inspectors of School (Stewart, Eitel and Brewin) and show how what b now called 'the public sector' of education developed from the time of the original Grant Code, by way of the revision (1879) which Roman Catholics considered to have enabled them to accept Grants-in-Aid, and through the time when Eitel operated hb policy of closing down Government District Schoob and relying more upon Grant Schoob, until the year of Eitel's retirement.
Enrolments in Govt & Grant Schools, 1877-1897
E3 Girls in Grant Schools E3 Boys in Grant Schools
‧
Girls in Government Schools
‧
Boys in Govt Schools
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97
Year Illus. 4.5
23. Photographic evidence.
The City Hall production of 'H.M.S. Pinafore' was on 13 February 1879 (Illus. 4.6). The World Premier of Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta was held at the Opera Comique in London on 25 May 1878. This suggests that the hoary old criticbm of Hong Kong as a cultural desert may need amendment, at least for some of the time.
Examples of school architecture of the time include a grant school, St. Paul's College (Illus. 4.7) and the two leading Government Schoob, Queen's College (for boys) (Illus. 4.8) and Belilios Public School (mainly for girb and built on the site of the old Central School, Gough Street, which was itself built on the site of the Rev. John Lewis Shuck's school of the mid-1840s) (Illus. 4.9).
Photographs of the Examination Hall (Illus. 4.10), the pupils (Illus. 4.11) and the staff (Illus. 4.12) of the Queen's College are also included.
As other evidence indicates, the Committee of the Tung Wah Group of Hospitab was very active in a charitable and paternalistic way. The photograph of the 1910 Committee illustrates the grandeur with which they were viewed (and perhaps viewed themselves) and emphasizes their perception as a traditional Chinese group of notables (Illus. 4.13).
Illus. 4.6 A Mirage in the 'Cultural Desert'? The City Hall production of 'H.M.S. Pinafore' on 13 February 1879.
295
The final set of photographic evidence (Illus. 4.14) shows sample pages from an initia-tive made by a typical Hong Kong middleman to attempt to penetrate the language barrier.82
Illus. 4.7 St. Paul's College.
llSfeZL
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i.i ii i Itw
Illus. 4.8 Queen's College.
82. For further details of Mok Man Cheung and his book, see Anthony Sweeting, 'A Middle-man for all Seasons: Snapshots of the Significance of Mok Man Cheung and his "English
Made Easy7", Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 27,1987.
Illus. 4.9 Belilios Public School.
Illus. 4.10 Examination in progress in the school hall, Queen's College, 1903. Illus. 4.11 Class 6D at Queen's College on 2 March 1905J
83. Mr and Mrs Stokes discovered the set of photographs from which this one has been taken while in the library of Rhodes House, Oxford University. They contributed invalu-able work in identifying many of the subjects in the photographs. The photographs were taken by 'the celebrated' J.A. Barr, an American known for his skill in taking school groups. In this sample of his work, one might notice the size of the class (well over 50) as well as the wide age-range, the varied attire (ranging from traditional Chinese gowns, soft shoes, and padded jackets on some pupils to knickerbockers, cap, and stout, European style shoes on at least one other), and the ethnic mixture of the pupils. Because of the opening of the Kowloon British School a few years earlier, there were fewer European boys entering Queen's College, but, as this photograph attests, Chinese pupils (the majority) were joined by pupils from other backgrounds, especially Eurasians and Indians. The capped and gowned figure at the left is Edwin Ralphs, Acting Normal Master (i.e., in charge of the pupil-teacher scheme). He appears to be keeping a close watch on a somewhat apprenhen-sive Normal Student at the front right.
Illus. 4.12. The staff of Queen's College.84
84. This photograph was taken outside the main entrance to the school on Staunton Street on 4 March 1905. Mr and Mrs Stokes identify the staff 'with reasonable certainty7 in a 1988 mimeo. The expatriate masters sit at the base of the pyramid. In the front row, from the left, are A.H. Crook (later fifth Headmaster), A.W. Grant, B.A. (Cantab.), T.K. Dealy (later third Headmaster), Dr George Bateson Wright (Headmaster), Edwin Ralphs (later Acting Direc-tor of Education), Bertram Tanner (later fourth Headmaster). In the second row are H.L.O. Garrett, R.J. Birbeck, and two temporary members of staff. Three members of staff (AJ. May, R.E.O. Bird and G.P. de Martin) were not present when the photograph was taken. Behind the expatriates are the Anglo-Chinese Masters (or 'Chinese Assistants') who were supposed to teach in English. In the front are six senior men (Ng In, Tse Tsing-fong, Kong Ki-fai, Leung Wong-kuen, Lau Tsoi and Li Ying-shiu). Behind are four younger Anglo-Chinese Masters (Chiu Yung-chi, Ying Wing-chick, Fung Sz-chan and one other. Standing a little back from the row is probably Lai U-lim, temporarily promoted from Pupil Teacher to Normal Student. Then came five Vernacular Masters who taught in Chinese. Chan Tat-ming, well-known for his stoutness and his booming voice, is slightly left of centre. On his right are Ho Mo-ng (Senior Vernacular Master) by the balustrade and Lo Po-tang. On Mr Chan's left are Ho Fung-cheung and then Chan Man-tsung. Behind this row are the Normal Students (Pupil Teachers).
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PREFACE.
This compilation appears in response to a request urge upon the author by some of his business friends. It is designed for beginners of the English language, and is also intended to be a handy manual for business men who have acquired a few ordinary English words and desire to learn more without a teacher by the aid of the charecter of their own language. The pronunciation of each English word is given by a Chinese spelling, or, more correctly speaking, Chinese characters to repre-sent the English sounds as nearly as it appears possible for them to do so. Where no Chinese word can be found in the written language to reproduce the English pronunciation; a short note in Chinese colloquial or in simple terms is given, illustrating the sound required so as to enable the student to inter the particular sound. To test the usefulness of this book, let any one English word be picked out in the book and pointed out to a Chinese; then let him read the Chinese char-acters given for the sound: and, by merely reading the Chinese Characters, he will produce that sound as requared by the English spelling. The compiler has had this experiment tried time and again, and the resule has proved generally satisfactory,
The system of toning each Chinese Character to mark its pronunciation and the hints subjoined, the author trusts, is unique in design. He believes this system of his to be of practical help to beginners, and also hopes that this brochure will meet the urgent demand of that class of Chinese who would rely entirely on their own efforts to learn English without the aid of a teacher.
Illus. 4.14 Pages from a 1904 publication, entitled English Made Easy, compiled by Mok Man Cheung, published by 'Kwong Hop Yuen, 46, Bonham Strand, Hong Kong, China'.
II
Beginners who wish to learn to talk English in a com-paratively short time and at the least possible expense, may find that this book will answer their purpose. All Chinese characters given for pronunciation of English words are to be read from left to right.
This book also contains forms of bills, social and business letters, forms of applications for licences, permits, etc., in English, with the Chinese text which
the Chinese in Hongkong may find handy in their
everyday business and social relations with thier
European friends.
M. M. C.
Illus. 4.14 (Continued)
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As
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Illus. 4.14 (Continued)
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NUMERALS AND FIGURES.
m
1 One 3 Three 4 Four
2 Two
ftfc.itr
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# S ￡ JftJ
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5 Five 6 Six 7 Seven 8 Eight
0R
9 Nine 10 Ten 11 Eleven 12 Twelve
2 . A * m
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.H.lft*
Illus. 4.14 (Continued)
& zm 1% Mitidsu* WoR #
Greece
Honolulu Java
Loochoo
Island
Turkey
"Victoria
Italy
Pll
England
l±
Eussia Suez Portugal
ma
canal
Holland
*ta.i9i Jfifim
France
California Sydney Egypt
pisi Germany
Sacramento Keelung
India Panama
"toll
BftfloJii
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San Francisco
Corea .=ii New Zealand
Tllloftfl!
Tibet T^>
Illus. 4.14 (Continued)
330 ^m^^
He is fond of drinks
He is so cheeky
3t%3c.F.HMl￡3f
He can't be trusted
JitMBT
This cup is chipped
I ciiu't trust him
He is in the country
m** ts^ tarn m^ mn,
He works hard
Be's got no bad habits
He made plenty of money
He lends money
How much have you done!
(XB)
How far have you got'
I have nearly finished
I have left him
4E.$fctt,A
He is my enemy
I don't know anything about it
fOBffill
I'll take your advice
Illus, 4.14 (Continued)
440
48, Caiae Road,
Hongkong, 19th January, 1916.
The Water Authority,
Sir,
We beg most respectfully to bring to your notice
that the water service on the above premises has for
some days failed and we have been unable to get
water. In consequence we have been put to the
inconvenience of obtaining our supply for cooking
and washing purposes from our neighbbours' houses,
which has been a source of annoyance both to our-
selves and to them. I shall feel sincerely grateful if
you will kindly cause the water pipe on the premises
to be examined and, if found defective, have it
repaired at your earliest convenience.
Thanking you iu advance for your valuable services,
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Yours most obedient servants,
Wong To
Li Yee Hing
+*, m smffiAW*.#￡*wfcx+*js a -* mi H ^wimnmBnmtmK
+ mm %,m%7fm&mm&n&&^ K
Illus. 4.14 (Continued)
441
16, Ping On Street,
Hengkong, 10th August, 1916.
To The Superioress,
French Convent, gcSfcl* Italain Convent,
Dear Madam,
I take the liberty of addressing you with regard to
my daughter, who is 3 years of age and is suflering from
a serious complaint, but the doctors who have been
trenting her have given her but temporary relief. Her
disease seems to be getting from bad to worse and,
being aware that the Sisters in your Convent are
scrupulously careful, tender, and attentive to their
duties in tending and nursing sick children, I con-
ceive it to be wise for me to send her to your convent
for treatment as an in patient. I am sending her to
you with her mother who will deliver this note to you.
I respectifully beg that you will give her admission
and every medical aid. When she is recovered which
I am confident she will under your motherly care, I
will take her back and make a donation to your Con-
vent according to my humble means, to mark my
recognition of your kind and valuably services.
Thanking you in anticipation:
I remain,
Yours respectfully,
Hu Yuen.
*% mmmmmAff***s*￡.*&*I
ft-fr- *￡*JB..r&AS;^ftte.ISScW
Illus. 4.14 (Continued)
24, Wan Chai Street, 1st Floor, Hongkong, 10th October, 1919. The Office in Charge, No. 2, Police Station, GA&S The Public Dispensary, Central District.) Dear Sir, I beg to bring to your notice that there is a dead body lying on the road OKiJfcSg pathway) in front of my house (^$L% of house No. 24, Mercer Street.) It is apparently that of a male person O^gftjfl of a child) who the Kaifong people think has died of some sickness. The Kaifong will be extremely obliged by your send-ing an ambulance to remove it to the proper quarter. Apologizing for the trouble given: Yours faithfully. Chan Che Wing Appended hereto are the chops of the Kaifong, Cheng Lee Ho, Lee On Ho, Yu Yuen, etc.
TO* HAP ft ￡* J* ￡ *fl*sz<.-T03 HtAffi3#g.mg^f ^
Wb
MM
￡0*
Illus. 4.14 (Continued)
309
24. The Trospectus of the French Convent School, 1910', in Asile de la Sainte Enfance... Monography, 1910, pp. 42-51 (Illus. 4.15).
A second extract from the 'Monography', this time from what might be regarded as a primary source — the School Prospectus for the year in which the Monography was published — provides a wealth of data about the social aspects ofschooling, as well as about the Sisters' declared objectives.
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PROSPECTUS
The prospectus is forwarded to every family who
desires it.
By the fact of the entrance of a pupil into the boarding-school, all the conditions of the prospectus are accepted by the parents.
Purpose.
The aim which the management have in view is to impart to the pupils committed to their care, not only a sound general instruction but such an education as will form and fit the girls for after-life.
Cha ra c teris tic.
To reach this end, the mistresses strive to replace the children's parents and offer them a home where family life and affection are preserved.
The vigilance exercised over their pupils is of a constant nature. Never a*;e the children left by themselves, their teachers are present at their meals, sleep in the dormitories and are out with them in their walks and recreations, continually watching over their deportment, language and manners.
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
— 44 -
The pupils' health forms the object of special at-tention, their slightest indisposition calling forth the solicitude of the sisters. In case of illness, the pa-rents are informed forthuith. A physician is atta-ched to the establishment, but his attendance and prescriptions are charged for, as extras.
Tuition.
The school is under the control of the government, and its curriculum comprises the literary and scien-tific branches, that appear on the English Sylla-bus.
All the lessons are graduated and tend to prepare the pupils for the Oxford local Examination ; while the method followed in the teaching, assumes a practical character and always aims at providing the girls with all necessary and useful general know-ledge after a few years spent at the school.
Private lessons in French are given if desired. Ladies may also receive such lessons, on applica-tion to the mother superior. ARTS. — Lessons in piano playing and drawing are optional, and count as extras.
All the girls are carefully taught both ordinary and fancy needlework, and are trained in all those things, that an accomplished woman ought to know and be able to perform.
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
— 45 —
Means of Emulation.
The means of emulation employed are : composi-tions, good marks, quarterly reports, examinations, and dis tribution of prizes.
Fac-simile of the report sent peiiodically to the parents :
FRENCH CONVENT SCHOOL
HONG-KONG
REPORT OF
Miss
FOR
GENERAL REPORT
Conduct Order Politeness Applical'on Lessons known Lessons missed
Parent's Signature
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
STUDIES MAX. OBT. REMARKS
Reading. S Spelling. . . . I Grammar. . ; Composition. . I Arithmetic.
Geography. Physical Geography History
I Domestic Economy. Elementary Science Penmanship. .
I French.. .. . Hygiene. Drawing. . . Bible History. . Catechism.. Music. .
| Needlework. .
TOTAL.
Position in Examination
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
47-
TIME-TABLE
5 o'clock. Rising Toilet followed hy mor-
ning prayer.
7 — ‧ . Rising for the younger pupils.
6 — . . Assistance at mass.
7 — Breakfast.
8 — . Baths.
8-3otill 12 . English Class.
12 o'clock Dinner.
I2-3o — I-I5 . . Recreation.
I-I 5 — 3. . . . English Class.
4 3o — 5.. . Tea and recreation.
5 — 6-3o. Study and sewing.
6-3o — Evening prayer.
7 — 8.. Supper recreation.
8 — Retirement.
Every day a French lesson is given to the boar-ders who desire it'from 3 o'clock till 4-3o. This same class may be followed by the day-boarders and day-scholars. Every day from I-I 5 to 2 p.m. religious ins-truction is given to catholic pupils.
Visits.
The boarders may receive visits : On Sundays from 11 till 12 o'clock.
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
- 48 -
On Thursdays from 10 till 12 o'clock.
The pupils .must obtain the permission to go to the parlour. On account of the studies, they should not he disturbed during class hours.
Holidays.
The pupils have a holiday every Sunday and ho-liday of obligation, e^cry Thursday and a half ho-liday on Saturday.
On Sundays and Thusdays when the weather permits, the boarders take a walk accompanied by their mistresses.
The boarders may go out on the first Sunday of every month.
At Christmas : 1 week.
At Easter: 1 week.
The long vacation takes place in the months of July and August.
General Discipline.
The day-scholars and day-boarders should be at school at 8-3o in the morning, and should leave from 3 till 4-3o.
The boarders are absolutely forbidden to give any outside commission. Any infraction of this rule, either by boarders or day-scholars, would expose
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
-4 9-them to severe reprimands and perhaps, to expul-sion. The pupils are forbidden to borrow money or to make any exchange whatever. The letters sent or received must be first sub-mitted to the Directress. No newspapers or journals may be introduced into the school without a special authorization of the mistress. The pupils should have no books ex-cept their prize-books or those chosen by the Sis-ters. When a pupil is retained in her family for a suf-ficient reason, the superioress should he informed. A boarder, should not, on any account pass the night outside the boarding-school, without special per-mission from the Superioress.
ADMISSION
Boarders, day-boarders, and day-scholars are re-ceived.
Children are admitted from the age of 4; boys are not received as boarders, but only as day-scholars until the age of 7.
The day-scholars may bring their midday meals, those of the day-boarders are supplied by the esta-blishment.
The day-boarders should have a table-service, a goblet, and a serviette for each week, all marked with their initials.
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
5o —
Pecuniary-Conditions.
Entrance fee S. 25 School fee 20 Washing 3 Day-boarders $. 8 Day-scholars 3 For the day-boarders and day-
scholars who follow the
French course 2
Piano 8
Drawing 6
The classical supply is paid apart.
Private lessons.
For ladies and children who desire to take priv-ate lessons in the French language, the terms are as follows :
$. 5 a month, one lesson of an hour each week For ( 10 — 2 one | 12 — 3
person ( 16 4 For f$.10 1
z
two \ 14 — 2 persons \ 18 3 together f 22
4 For 1$. 12 — 1 three \ 16 — 2 persons ) 20 3 together' 24 — 4 Private lessons in sewing or lace-work are given at $ o,5o c per hour.
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
Trousseau or Outfit.
Boarders must be provided with the following
outfit: 2 uniform dresses, blue serge for Winter { Supplied 2 white dresses for Summer ^ by the 2 uniform-hats f House.
2 pairs of gloves (one white and one blue). 3 aprons for class. 2 ordinary dresses (for every day).
12 chemises. 4 night-dresses. 6 pairs of drawers. 4 white petticoats.
12 pairs of stockings (six cotton and six wool). i pair of boots and i pair of shoes. 2 dozen handkerchiefs. 2 corsets. i umbrella.
Combs and toilet-objects.
Boarders who do not pay $. 25 entrance fee have to supply besides the trousseau : i mattress ) . . . . . .. , . . ,
, , . [ having size ot the boarding-school bed. 2 pairs of sheets. 2 bath towels. 2 woollen-blankets. 6 table serviettes.
2 cotton-blankets. i knife. 6 pillow-cases. i fork. i white cou n terp ane. i table-spoon.
i toilet service. i tea-spoon. 6 toilet-napkins. i goblet. All these things must be in good condition, and marked with the number assigned by the House.
CHARTRES. IMPRIMERIE DURAND, RUE IULBERT.
Illus. 4.15 (Continued)
319
25. An article entitled 'Education7 by G.H. Bateson Wright, D.D.(Oxon.), Head-master of Queen's College, Hong Kong, in Twentieth Century Impressions of Hong Kong, Shanghai and Other Treaty Ports of China.
The final evidence is taken from the handsomely produced and very substantial volume, published in 1908 by Lloyd's Greater Britain Publishing Company and edited by Arnold Wright, entitled Twentieth Century Impressions of Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Other Treaty Ports of China. The photographs in the article still retain atmosphere and interest (Illus. 16-21). Readers might wish to compare Bateson Wright's florid style with the earlier quotations from the Asile de la Sainte Enfance .. . Monography (see Evidence 2, Chapter 1 and Evidence 24 in this chapter) and consider it as a bluff, masculine counterpart. They might also wish to note the elements of self-congratulation.
"HONG KONG is sui generis." Thirty years ago this was the war cry of the eloquent Hon. Mr. Phineas Ryrie, locally known as the Rupert of Debate. He never wearied of endeavouring to impress upon the Govern-ment that it was futile to attempt to apply the experiences of England and India to the conditions of Hongkong. Few people will be found ready to deny that a sound substratum of fact underlies the idea; but it is equally certain that for many decades Hongkong suffered from undue regard to the conviction that English methods could not solve Chinese problems.
Prima facie, it would appear probable that Education would naturally be one of those subjects in which great, if not insuperable, difficulties would be encountered in dealing with a large, mixed, cosmopolitan com-munity, the bulk of which belongs to the most conservative of nations on the face of the earth —the Chinese. Despite the hindrances engendered by this conception, a cursory review of the history of Education in this Col-ony will show that, after all, a greater similarity obtains between the con-ditions existing in the mother country and this little Colony than might at the coup d'oeil be supposed possible.
In England, from 1850 to 1870, the only elementary schools were the National Schools, under the aegis of the Established Episcopal Church, the British Schools supported by the Nonconformist denominations, and the Roman Catholic Schools, all of these receiving bonuses from the Govern-ment, with special consideration to Established Church. We need not be surprised, then, to find that for the first twenty or thirty years the Hongkong Government contented itself with aiding missionary efforts by grants and by the establishment of Grant-in-aid Schools under the control of an Educational Committee, of which Bishop Smith, and subsequently Dr. Legge, was chairman. W7hen Board Schools were instituted in England the Forster Code was introduced into Hongkong, with the modifications re-quired by local conditions. At intervals new editions of the local Code were published, generally increasing both the value of the grant and the severity of the standard. Last of all, Hongkong, following the lead at
home, abolished the necessity of an annual examination of all the scholars in the Grant-in-aid Schools, leaving the assessment of the proficiency of each school, and the extent to which it shall be subject to examination, to the discretion of the Inspector of Schools.
So far, it will be observed, nothing has been recorded indicative of any necessity for peculiar treatment of educational matters in Hongkong. Naturally, however, linguistic and racial problems unknown in Great Britain arise in this Colony. Of a total population of 361,000, no fewer than 340,000, or 94 per cent, are Chinese. The importance to these of the study of their own language would appear to be self-evident, and was immedi-ately recognised by the local Government without discussion. Under Sir J. Pope-Hennessy's regime (1877-82) it was first suggested that the entire time of Chinese students ought to be devoted to the acquisition of the English language. The supporters of the then existing state of affairs appealed successfully to the famous dictum of Macaulay relative to the maintenance of vernacular instruction in India. The matter dropped for the time to be revised under more propitious circumstances during the governorship of Sir William Robinson (1891-97), when notice was given that the study of Chinese was removed from the curriculum of all Govern-ment Schools, and that in future no new Grant-in-aid School teaching Chinese would be accepted. Later the Government reverted to the former practice, and more recently advanced to the position that no grant would be given to a school attended by Chinese unless adequate provision were made for instruction in the vernacular.
Next to the consideration of whether the Chinese language should be taught, came the question of the method to be employed in teaching it. At first sight it would appear somewhat presumptuous for foreigners to undertake to devise an improvement upon the native system which had been in vogue for several centuries. But common-sense and utilitarianism prevailed. It is the custom in China for the first two or three years of a child's school-life to be spent in the acquirement by heart of several volumes of native literature, without any explanation whatever of the subject-matter, which is perfectly unintelligible to the scholar. Even when instruction comes later, its educational value, apart from moral lessons such as filial piety, &c, is confined to the composition of stilted essays in stereotyped style upon topics of a very limited scope. To meet the require-ments of a scheme for teaching the Chinese their own language on a rational system several series of books have been complied and published by missionaries at Shanghai. Following the plan of English Readers, they begin with the use of the simplest characters possible, and treat of subjects within the every-day ken of the infant. Lessons are given on animals, plants, history, and geography, while not the least interesting and instruc-tive is a work dealing with the composite parts of various characters and their meaning, hitherto a sealed subject to the average Chinaman. All this, an entirely new departure for Chinese students, is of high educational value; and at the end of three years, instead of being on the threshold of learning, as by the native system, the pupils have acquired a variety of useful information and are able to write short letters and essays, formerly an impossible feat at this stage. These useful books have been introduced into Hongkong Government Schools within the last half-dozen years, and, though some are too childish in sentiment for boys twelve years of age, are highly appreciated.
Beside British and Chinese, there are in Hongkong boys of all nation-alities — American, Hindu, Japanese, Parsee, Portuguese, &c. For many years there was a great agitation amongst the British ratepayers to found a separate school for the exclusive use of boys and girls of British parentage. Their prayer has now been granted. The first opportunity was afforded by a new school-building erected by the munificence of Mr. Ho Tung, with the proviso that no boy should be excluded on the ground of race or creed. As this school was conveniently situated for the children of residents in the Kowloon Peninsula opposite Victoria, Mr. Ho Tung was induced to consent to his school being converted into a school for British children only, on the understanding that the Government would erect in Yaumati, a mile distant on the same side of the water, a school for Chinese under the charge of an English headmaster. Mr. D. James, formerly assistant master at*Queen's College, Hongkong, and second master of the King's School for Siamese Princes at Bangkok, was appointed headmaster, and Kowloon British School was formally opened in 1902. Soon afterwards, owing largely to the instrumentality of Mr. Irving, a similar British School was opened in the island to the east of Victoria and called the Victoria British School, under the care of Mr. W.H. Williams, headmaster. Both these are mixed schools, but a somewhat grotesque arrangement has been made by the terms of which, boys over sixteen may not attend Kowloon School, but must cross over to Victoria, and girls over sixteen must leave Victoria School and cross to Kowloon, which seems to suggest that the Inspector of Schools has not the full courage of his convictions.
In this connection, while admitting that for other reasons the estab-lishment in a British colony of schools for British boys and girls is highly desirable, it is only just to the denizens of the ancient and enormous Empire of China to put on record that one of the reasons urged by the parents for this segregation, viz., the fear of moral contamination of their children from association with Chinese schoolmates, is based on popular prejudice, which is not supported by the evidence of those competent to form an opinion founded upon experience. On the occasion of a visit to the Central School in 1885, General Cameron, then administering the gov-ernment, asked the headmaster his opinion of the morals of his Chinese pupils, and received the answer: "About the same as those of school-boys of other nations, certainly not worse." Dr. Stewart, the previous headmas-ter, on being appealed to, corroborated the statement. Dr. Eitel, the Inspec-tor of Schools, whose experience was still more varied, as he had been for many years a missionary among the Hakka population on the mainland, then made the following important pronouncement: 'Taking them class by class, Your Excellency, the Chinese compare very favourably with Western nations in the matter of morality." The General laughed, and said "That is your opinion, gentlemen. Well, nobody will believe you." Here we have the whole affair in a nutshell. Popular prejudice is tenacious of life. Nobody will accept an actual fact opposed to the belief of the man in the street.
When Inspector of Schools, Dr. Stewart endeavoured to induce the Government to favour a policy of compulsory education then exploited in England. All succeeding inspectors of schools have concluded, and justly so, that it is absolutely impracticable to dream of introducing compulsory education into Hongkong. The enormous army of school attendance offi-cers necessary to render the scheme in the least degree efficient, is in itself sufficiently appalling; to say nothing of the time that would be wasted at the magisterial court in warning and fining offenders. The discrepancy between the estimated number of children of school age in the Colony, and those attending school is largely accounted for by the boating popula-tion; though even these are not indifferent to the advantages of Western education, as Queen's College and Yaumati Government School can tes-tify. From whatever cause, however, there, has been in the last few years a very perceptible decrease in the number of children seen toiling up the hillside with loads of brick and earth.
Chinese boys are for the most part docile, well-behaved, and, to some extent, eager to learn. They have, however, a disposition to be eclectic. If, for instance, they do not see the present advantage of the study of geogra-phy or geometry, they neglect these subjects as far as the rules of the school may permit. They do not recognise that in a commercial career, a correct knowledge of cities and countries, of their manufactures and prod-ucts, may be of real service in after life; nor do they appreciate the fact that the average Chinaman is incapable of sustaining an argument, starting with false or indeterminate premisses and cheerfully pursuing a circui-tous course to the point from which he started, the only cure for which is a rigid course of geometrical study. There is, perhaps, no characteristic of the Chinese nation more universally admitted than their possession of a marvellous memory. But the questions arise: Is it a serviceable memory? Is it not rather an agent for cramming? Are there not, as a matter of fact, nearly 99 per cent, of them incapable of remembering, after the lapse of a year, the salient points of any subject (say history) in which they have passed an examination successfully? Again, though like most Eastern nations, the Chinese show a greater aptitude for the acquisition of knowl-edge in arithmetic, algebra, and trigonometry, than is possessed by the average Western school-boy, they can hardly the credited with the mathe-matical genius accorded to them by popular opinion. Their memory is not accretive; too often will they be found to have forgotten elementary prin-ciples, with which they were acquainted two or three years previously. As a rule they are lacking in initiative; they can repeat the same mathematical exercise provided the conditions are the same, but will be at a loss if a slight change is introduced requiring the exercise of independent thought. In spite, however, of these points of adverse criticism, Chinese, taking them all round, are more apt and willing pupils than European boys.
THE INSPECTORATE OF SCHOOLS
The growth of education in this Colony has been unostentatious and slow. Like a germinating plant, it at first followed the lines of least resis-tance, but as it matured it became firmly rooted, and the buffets of con-flicting circumstances have only proved beneficial. It is now hardy and weather-proof. As we have seen, the Government began by encouraging missionary efforts. It remained for a missionary to be the prime factor in rousing the Government to a full sense of its responsibility in the matter of taking a lead in the education of the Colony. Dr. James Legge, of Aber-deen, the celebrated Sinologue, Senior Missionary of the London Mission-ary Society, was at the time chairman of the Government Educational Board, and he was successful in inducing the Government to agree to the foundation of the government Central School in Gough Street, and to the appointment of Mr. (later Dr.) Frederick Stewart, also of Aberdeen Uni-versity, to be the first headmaster, combined with which office were the additional duties of Inspector of Schools. Mr. Stewart arrived in 1862. He had many difficulties to cope with, prominent amongst them being the indifference of the Chinese of those days to the advantages of Western education. In a few years, however, he had various Government schools established in sundry villages of the island and at Kowloon, in addition to two more important schools — Government Schools at Wantsai and Saiyingpun. As soon as Dr. Legge saw Mr. Stewart firmly seated in the saddle, he generously recommended to the Government the complete emancipation of the former from the Educational Board, and this was immediately granted. For nineteen years Dr. Stewart remained Inspector of Schools, during which time the number of Government and Grant-in-aid Schools swelled considerably, and the increase in school attendance and the extension of proficiency in English were thoroughly satisfactory. Attacks on the educational system were made during the Governorship of Sir J. Pope-Hennessy. Dr. Stewart first begged to be relieved of the oner-ous duties of Inspector of Schools, Dr. Eitel being at once appointed to the vacancy. In 1881, Dr. Stewart successfully made application for the post of Police Magistrate. He subsequently became Registrar-General, Acting Colonial Secretary, and, at the time of his death, in 1889, was Colonial Secretary. The Chinese evinced their high appreciation of Dr. Stewart's services by founding a scholarship at Queen's College in his memory. A
large coloured window in a transept of St. John's Cathedral permanently records the sentiments of the general public.
Dr. Eitel was Inspector of Schools from 1879 to 1897. Education con-tinued to flourish during his tenure of office, the chief features of which were the impetus given to female education, the removal of religious disabilities in schools, and the reduction in the number of school days annually necessary for the Government grant. The arrival of Sir George Bo wen in 1883 was signalised by a burst of educational ardour. Scholar-ships were granted giving free education at the Central School to boys from the Government District Schools, and an annual Government schol-arship of ￡200 a year for four years was founded to enable Hongkong boys to proceed to England for the further study required for a professional career. To the enterprising courage of Mr. C. J. Bateman was due the starting of the Cambridge Local Examinations in Hongkong. A year or two later, Hongkong was made a centre for the Oxford Locals, with Mr. Wright as local secretary, Oxford proving more amenable than Cam-bridge in granting concessions to Hongkong on account of its great dis-tance from England. The Chinese College of Medicine was inaugurated, and proved an unqualified success. With the exhibition of so much educa-tional energy, a friendly spirit of rivalry was excited amongst the schools of the Colony that continues to the present day with very beneficial results. School sports, which previously had been confined to individual schools, were re-organised and amalgamated into one annual function known as the Hongkong Schools' Sports. Dr. Eitel spent considerable time and energy in the formation of a cadet corps in connection with all the leading schools. One combined and rather imposing general parade was held on the cricket ground, but, like most new ideas in Hongkong, it was doomed to early extinction. To the great grief of all the headmasters concerned Dr. Eitel succeeded during Sir William Robinson's regime in inducing the Government to abolish the Government scholarship to Eng-land, and the local free scholarships founded ten years previously. The latter alone have been restored.
On the retirement of Dr. Eitel in 1897, the Hon. Mr. A. W. Brewin (now Registrar-General) was for a brief period Inspector of Schools. He was followed by Mr. E. A. Irving, the present inspector, in 1901. The past six years have shown a great stimulus in education, especially during the short time that Sir Matthew Nathan ruled the Colony. In fact, it would appear just to say that of the three Governors who most bestirred them-selves about educational matters — Sir J. Pope-Hennessy, Sir George Bowen, and Sir Matthew Nathan — the efforts of the last are the most likely to provide permanent benefit to the Colony. The school study of hygiene was, it is true, made part of imperial policy by the Secretary of State, for the Colonies, but it is no less true that its zealous adoption in Hongkong was due to the late Governor, while the institution of the Evening Continuation Classes was His Excellency's own idea. These classes
have proved so successful that they have recently been re-christened "Hongkong Technical College/' and made a sub-department of the In-spectorate of Schools, with an Advisory Committee, the chairman of which, the Hon. Mr. A. W. Brewin, has done yeoman service during the past eighteen months. Besides being an active member of the League of the Empire, connected with whose agency is visual instruction by lectures and magic lantern exhibitions on the subject of the British Empire, the Inspector of Schools, Mr. Irving, has been particularly successful in pro-moting in the Government District Schools the improvement of English conversation by the Chinese, and in urging throughout the Colony the acceptance of vernacular instruction on a Western, as contrasted with a Chinese, system.
EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS
A brief reference must now he made to the various Hongkong educa-tional establishments not alluded to above. Queen's College will be dealt with separately below. Of the oldest, St. Paul's College, the Diocesan School, St. Joseph's College, the Italian Convent, L'Asile de la Sainte Enfance, the Berlin and Basel, and the Baxter Girl's Missions at once claim attention. The work of the London Mission in early times has already been referred to and still briskly flourishes. St. Paul's College, originally in-tended for a missionary training school, has reverted to its purpose, after various side attempts at educating the British population. The Diocesan
Illus. 4.16 Queen's College.
School, at first a mixed school, devoted itself to the exclusive education of boys some twenty years ago. Its school building has been considerably en-larged, and its educational successes have been conspicuous. The Roman Catholic School of St. Saviour's migrated to St. Joseph's in about 1880. A new storey has recently been added to the building, in itself evidence of the success which marks the generous unpaid zeal of the Christian Broth-ers, who, in a truly catholic spirit, admit Jews, Turks, Heretics, and Infi-dels to the benefit of their high-class education. The Italian convent, L'As-ile de la Sainte Enfance, Berlin, Basel and Baxter Missions, are some of the oldest institutions for girls; the first two mentioned proving, also, of educational service to the community at large, and the last having risen from an enrolment of eleven in 1883 to its present number of sixty. Amongst more recently started schools we must note the Belilios Public School for Girls, the Diocesan School for Girls, Ellis-Kadoorie School (now called Hongkong College), St. Stephen's College for the sons of the better-class of Chinese, and, at Kowloon, the Home for Girls and a Blind School. Outside the Education Department are a number of private schools where a good education is provided in English and Portuguese. In this category are also the Kaifong schools, promoted by the native gentry, for the study of vernacular by the poorer classes; and schools for the study of English, endowed by the liberality of gentlemen like Messrs. Ho Kom-tong and the late Chan He-wan. To the names of these gentlemen as public benefactors should be added those of the late Mr. E.R. Belilios, Mr. Ellis Kadoorie, and Mr. Ho Tung, who have built schools referred to passim above.
Hongkong is a centre for the London University Matriculation, the Oxford Local Examinations, and the Royal College of Music, and, on leaving the colony, its students have distinguished themselves in England and the United States of America. It may, therefore, be admitted that, however sui generis Hongkong may have been thirty years ago, it can now lay claim to have entered the educational comity of nations.
The following table of statistics shows the steady growth of educa-tional progress in the colony, remarkable in the case of female education, which was, at first, naturally opposed to Chinese ideas:-
No. of Girls Percentage
Year Schools Scholars only of Girls
1866 16 1,870 45 2.4
1876 41 2,922 543 18.5
1886 90 5,844 1,683 28.8
1896 120 7301 2,702 37.0
1906 85 7,642 3,289 43.0
QUEEN'S COLLEGE. — Like the Royal College at Mauritius and the
Harrison College at Barbados, Queen's College, Hongkong, is an entirely separate Government department, independent of the Inspectorate of Schools. Its history, therefore, demands individual treatment.
When Dr. Stewart in 1862 opened the Government Central School in Gough Street, that district, though in close proximity to the Queen's Road, was semi-rural, being occupied by villa residences, interspersed with trees and bamboo groves. The site was admirable adapted to the purpose, being equi-distant from the two extremities, east and west, of the city of Victoria, to supply whose educational needs was its object. A building in the shape of a letter H was erected, affording accommodation for about 350 boys. The central bar was a sort of hall, in which rows of benches rose one above another, tier upon tier. Two classes were taught here, and three in each of the adjoining wings. Screens were impossible, so that instruction, under the conditions, suffered considerable disadvantage.
There was at first some difficulty in inducing Chinese to see the benefit accruing from Western studies. Fees, of course, were quite out of the question, and a few years later the charge of fifty cents a month was not made without much apprehension. However, in four years 222 boys were on the annual roll. In 1876 this number had risen to 577. It became necessary to use the four basement rooms of the headmaster's and second master's quarters as class-rooms, and the need for erecting a much larger building providing a separate room for each class became apparent.
Though only reaching the borders of what is understood by Secon-dary Education, the Central School turned out an immense number of
Illus. 4.17 St. Joseph's English College.
well-educated pupils of all nationalities, as can be testified by many Chi-nese, English, Indian, Parsee, and Portuguese gentlemen now in the Col-ony upwards of forty-five years of age. In 1877 an attack was made on the work done at the Central School in a pamphlet, popularly ascribed to the pen of the late Mr. J. J. Francis, Q.C., and entitled "Does the Central School fulfil its raison d'etre?" A commission was appointed by Sir John Pope-Hennessy to inquire into the possibility of providing a better system, and to consider whether the erection of five Government schools under Euro-pean headmasters, one being a collegiate establishment, would not prove more beneficial to the needs of the Colony than one new large building. The report was published in 1882, the commissioners disapproving of His Excellency's scheme, which later experience, however, would seem to have shown highly commendable. The Government thereupon resolved to build what is now known as Queen's College, the foundation of which was laid by Sir George Bowen in 1884.
In 1881 Dr. Stewart, at his own request, was transferred to the post of Police Magistrate, and in November of the same year the present head-master, Mr. (Dr. in 1891) G.H. Bateson Wright, was appointed by Earl Kimberley. Immediately on his arrival in January, 1882, Mr. Wright held the annual examination of the Central School, and, though not in a posi-tion to write a report on a year's work with which he had no personal acquaintance, he stated in a speech to Sir John Pope-Hennessy at the prize distribution that he was much struck with the attainments in the English language of the Chinese boys, and that the results of the examination reflected great credit on the management of the school and the labours of the masters.
The following changes were immediately effected. A half-yearly ex-amination was instituted and has been maintained ever since, to secure the efficiency of the work in the first half-year and to minimise the evils of cramming in the second half. The power to administer corporal punish-ment was restricted to the headmaster, and all forms of assault were strictly prohibited. The study of grammar and geography was extended to two lower classes, and algebra, geometry, and mensuration were restored to the curriculum. In the preparation of examination questions every care was taken to obviate the possibility of answers that were simply feats of memory without any evidence of the exercise of intelligent effort. The consequence was that for the next eight years, while the headmaster (in so small a school) was able to take an active part in tuition, the Inspector of Schools, who held the office of Annual Independent Examiner, in his reports published in the Government Gazette, spoke in the most compli-mentary terns of the work done at the Central School. In 1884 Walter Bosman was elected the First Government Scholar, and proceeded to England, where he had a brilliant career at the Crystal Palace Engineering Institute, he has since been in the Government service at Natal as Director of Public Works at Eshowe and Durban. The thanks of the Imperial
*
Illus. 4.18 St. Joseph's English College (Group of Scholars).
Government were accorded to him for delimiting the Portuguese frontier, and a couple of years ago he was aide-de-camp to the Colonel in charge of the expedition to suppress the rising in Natal.
In July, 1889, the premier Government institution migrated from the old Central School to Queen's College, erected on an open spot, insulated by four roads, a little higher up the hill. In January, 1889, there were 438 boys on the roll at the Central School; in July and September of the same year there were at Queen's College 510 and 796 respectively. By this sudden practical doubling of the number of students, the vast majority of whom were naturally admitted to the bottom classes, one would have thought it self-evident that the work of the next three or four years would be exceptionally arduous, and that the steady progress of the previous eight years must, as a matter of course, be retarded. Sir William Robinson, however, after a residence in the Colony of six months, caused consider-able astonishment, and in some quarters indignation, by the public an-nouncement at the Queen's College Prize Distribution in January, 1892, that Queen's College was a failure. This dictum, which would have been the ruin of a private school, did not affect the popularity of Queen's College with the Chinese. It is, indeed, very instructive to note that during the very six years that the college was suffering from the gubernatorial frown, Chinese masters and pupils were urgently required at the Imperial Tientsin University, where their excellent proficiency in English secured them a hearty welcome and rapid promotion. Of these sixty young men, at least four are now Taoutais, Wen Tsung-yao is Secretary to the Viceroy at Canton, Dr. Chan Kam-to is in the Finance Bureau at Peking, and Wong Fan and Leung Lan-fan are on Railways and Telegraph Service respec-tively. Verily, it may be said of Queen's College, as of the prophet, that it is not without honour save in its own country.
In 1894 the constitution of the college was changed by the appoint-ment of a governing body, whose first act in 1895 was to abolish the vernacular school, restoring it, however, nine years later. In 1896 inde-pendent examiners were nominated by the governing body to hold the winter examination and report on the college. With only two exceptions this practice was continued annually till 1903, when the governing body resolved that an annual inspection in July and report by the independent examiners would be of greater service than the examination of a thousand boys in January, the conduct of which was left in 1904 and onwards (as prior to 1896) to the control of the headmaster. A very wide gulf sunders the conditions of these two examinations. In January every boy is exam-ined, and the whole year's work is under review; in July the boys are tested in new work upon which they have been engaged for only four months, and about 20 per cent, are taken by the sample method.
Queens' College is fortunate in the possession of an excellent staff. Of the English staff, apart from the headmaster, there are three trained certifi-cated masters, the remainder are graduates of universities — three from Cambridge, two from Trinity College, Dublin, one from Oxford, and one from Aberdeen. The senior Chinese masters leave nothing to be desired, and most of the junior are satisfactory. The native masters are trained under the charge of a normal master. Twenty years ago, when the salary was only $4 a month, the head boys of the school were eager to be monitors, now that they receive $20 rising to $35 a month great difficulty is experienced in finding suitable boys to be articled pupil teachers, though by this course of training their market value is considerable enhanced on account of their greater proficiency in English.
The Oxford Local Examinations, which have been held at Hongkong as a centre for twenty years, during which time 1,400 candidates, boys and girls, have been examined, have proved of inestimable value. Besides providing an impartial test of the educational work done in the Colony, unmarred by local bias on either side, they have been of great service to Hongkong boys in procuring for them admission to English and Ameri-can schools and universities, and in obtaining exemption from profes-sional preliminary examinations. Queen's College has always had a diffi-culty to cope with in presenting candidates. The majority of these boys after promotion at the commencement of the school year have in March to begin to prepare for the examination in July. They are, therefore, practi-cally examined upon their knowledge gained in ordinary school routine, and very little on the special requirements of the locals. In spite of this drawback, however, they have done very creditably. Third Class Junior Honours were obtained in 1907, and distinctions as follow: -1895, Senior Mathematics and Preliminary History: 1898, Junior English; 1899, Senior English.
In an ambitious upward course Queen's College is hindered by the
Illus. 4.19 Ellis Kadoorie Chinese Schools Society.
following considerations. It is a day-school, so that all attempts to teach English conversation are necessarily confined to school hours, after which all the boys immediately revert to Chinese thought and expression, and no supervision can be given to preparation of work. Again, fully one-third of the boys change annually, and this has always been the case from time immemorial. Four hundred boys leaving and four hundred new boys being admitted annually is a very serious obstacle in the way of obtaining a large and efficient upper school. In this connection it is to be observed that there is no external system for feeding the upper classes of Queen's College such as exists in any large town in England, for the half-dozen boys from the Government district schools are lost sight of when the number of seats available (420) is borne in mind.
The following table serves to illustrate the slow but steady progress of Queen's College. "The day of small things" is past. Gradually the number of subjects in the curriculum has increased, and the increase in the number of scholars taking those subjects is enormous. Queen's College has justi-fied the high reputation it enjoys in the neighbouring vast Empire of China, and, with due encouragement, its future prospects are practically limitless.
Total number of boys examined in each subject.
1881 1885 1889 1907
English to Chinese 301 379 676 771
Chinese to English 301 379 676 771
Grammar 172 312 547 1,085
Geography 144 253 477 1,085
Composition 83 127 360 771
History 30 75 143 322
Geometry — 75 143 557
Algebra — 75 143 557
Mensuration — 25 24 118
Latin — — 117 —
General Intelligence — — 83 34
Shakespeare — — 24 34
Trigonometry — — 17 14
Hygiene — — — 771
Book-keeping — — — 118
THE REV. G. H. BATESON WRIGHT, D.D. (Oxon.). — Seated qui-etly at his desk, or presiding over his classes, the gentleman who, for upwards of twenty-six years, has been the headmaster of Queen's College, has, perhaps, done more than any of his contemporaries towards the for-mation of that sterling character which so distinguishes the educated Chinese of Hongkong. The histo-
ries of many of the Colony's
greatest men may be read in her
stones and thoroughfares, in her
docks and wharves, in the innu-
merable outward and tangible
evidences of her commercial
prosperity; but the history of Dr.
George Henry Bateson Wright is
writ even more legibly upon the
lengthening human scroll issu-
ing from Hongkong's leading
academy. The second son of the
late George Bache Wright, of the
Peninsular and Oriental Steam
Navigation Company's London
office, and grandson of Augus-
Illus.4.20 Dr. G.H.B. Wright, tus Wright, storekeeper of the
Queen's College. magazine, Priddy's Hard,
Gosport, during the Crimean War, Dr. Wright was born in 1853. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, where he graduated B.A., with second-class Theological Hon-ours, in June, 1875. He gained the Denyer and Johnson Scholarship and the Kennicott Hebrew Scholarship in 1876, and, in the following year, the Syriac Prize and the Pusey and Elerton Scholarship. He was ordained at Worcester a Deacon (Gospel) in 1877, and became Curate of Ladbroke, Warwickshire. In the following year he was admitted to the priesthood, again heading the list of candidates, and subsequently held the curacies of Christ Church, Bradford, and St. Peter's, Bournemouth. For a time he was a private tutor at Oxford, and in 1881 he was appointed headmaster of Queen's College. He proceeded to the degree of B.D. in February, 1891, and by grace of Convocation was allowed to take the degree of D.D. in May of the same year, when he was only thirty-eight years of age. In 1884 he published a work entitled "A Critical Edition of the Book of Job," whilst in 1895 published "Was Israel ever in Egypt?" Dr. Wright is mar-ried and lives at "Ladbroke, "No. 9, Conduit Road. His recreation lies in his work.
ST. JOSEPH'S ENGLISH COLLEGE. — This well-known institution is conducted by the Brothers of the Christian Schools, and is under the patronage of the Right Rev. Domenico Pozzoni, D.D., Vicar Apostolic of Hongkong. The work of the Brothers is too well known to need any comment here; suffice it to say that their name is familiar in every country, and at present they control over two thousand large educational establish-ments, where well-nigh four hundred thousand pupils are being equipped for the great struggle of life.
When the Brothers came to Hongkong thirty years ago, they took charge of a small school in Caine Road where they had but seventy pupils. The number steadily increased, and in two years they had one of the most flourishing schools in the Colony. To accommodate the ever-increasing number of boarders and day scholars more room was required, and in 1881 the foundation of the present building was laid by Sir John Pope-Hennessy, then Governor of Hongkong. In 1891 it was found necessary to add a third storey for the accommodation of the boarders, and three years afterwards the building was still further enlarged by the addition of two wings.
To-day the school is one of the most up-to-date educational establish-ments in the Far East. The building, surrounded by trees and pleasant patches of green, is delightfully situated on a height which commands an extensive view of the city and harbour of Victoria. Ample accommodation is provided for five hundred scholars, and in the boarding department there is room for eighty. The dormitory, which occupies more than half the third storey, is very well lighted and ventilated. It is surrounded by verandahs which greatly enhance the comfort of the place both in summer and in winter. Adjoining the dormitory are private rooms for students who wish to devote more time to their studies. On the second floor is the boarders' study hall — a spacious apartment, capable of affording sitting accommodation for over 120, and in which are held public meetings on certain occasions during the year. It is lighted by numerous electric lamps, and the walls are freely hung with maps and picture. There is a handsome stage at one end of the hall, where the students have an opportunity of developing their debating powers. The majority of the classrooms are on the ground floor, and can accommodate forty pupils each. They are fur-nished with all teaching requisites and have a very cheerful appearance. On the third storey are three class-rooms specially set apart for Chinese boys, and these are also equipped with the necessary appliances for the instruction of the pupils.
The aim of the institution is to give Catholic youths and others, with-out distinction of creed or persuasion, a thorough moral, intellectual, and physical education. The staff consists of twelve thoroughly trained Euro-pean masters, who have devoted their lives to the work. There are also two competent Chinese teachers to give a regular course of instruction to Chinese boys in their own language. When these boys leave school they will have the advantage of knowing both English and Chinese. To facili-tate the imparting of instruction, and to enable the pupils to derive full benefit from it, the Chinese boys of the lower standards are separated from the others, and receive instruction suited to their capacity. In the higher standards, the boys are prepared for the Oxford Local Examina-tion, in addition to receiving a sound commercial training.
Shorthand and typewriting are taught with great success,and several of the students have already obtained first-class certificates in these sub-jects. Book-keeping, commercial geography, commercial arithmetic, and correspondence also occupy a prominent place in the school syllabus. In all the classes great importance is attached to the teaching of English. It is the only language tolerated both on the playground and in the classroom, except in the lower standards of the Chinese department. High marks are generally obtained by the boys of the college at the Oxford Examination for this most important subject. The school curriculum also includes relig-ious instruction, French, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, and hy-giene. In addition the boys receive a special course in freehand, model, geometrical, and architectural drawing, from a thoroughly competent master, and the school has always enjoyed a high reputation for the success it has achieved in the teaching of this branch of education.
The physical training of the pupils receives due attention. A regular course of physical drill is given by a sergeant specially appointed by the Government for that purpose. On certain occasions during the year the boys are called upon to perform some of these exercises on the stage, and the skill and exactitude with which they go through them elicits the hearty applause of the onlookers. A keen interest is taken in out-door games, and in the shield competition every year the school holds a high place. A football and cricket club has been established in the college with a view to encouraging these games, the teachers recognising that "all work and no play maketh a dull boy." When unable to pursue their accustomed out-door amusements, owing to bad weather, the pupils retire to the club-room, where the time may be passed pleasantly at a game of billiards or chess, or in the perusal of interesting literature.
Hundreds of young men educated in the college have attained hon-ourable and lucrative positions in different parts of the world by the application of that knowledge and of those principles of right and honesty which were instilled into them during their early days.
ST. PAUL'S COLLEGE. — This institution,situated in the Lower Al-bert Road, Hongkong, was founded in 1843 by the first Colonial Chaplain of the Colony, with the object of providing men as native teachers and preachers. It is now the Training College of the Church Missionary Soci-ety's South China Mission, and comprises two departments — one for boys and the other for men. In that for boys the sons of Christian parents are received at the age of sixteen, and, after three years training, if they are found suitable, they pass into the day or boarding schools of the mission as schoolmasters, under the supervision of English or Chinese clergy. In the student class, under a separate organisation, men not under the age of twenty are trained as native preachers and catechists. This department was commenced in 1899 by the Rev. C. Bennett, at Shiu-Hing, and later in the same year the students were moved to Canton. In 1900 it was found that Hongkong would be a more suitable centre, and the college was ultimately transferred to its present premises, placed at its disposal by the late Bishop Hoare. Recently there has been established in connection with the college a preparatory school at Kowloon, where an old official yamen is held under the colonial Government on a repairing lease.
The Archbishop of Canterbury is hon. visitor to the college, and the Bishop of Victoria is the warden. The Sub-warden and Principal is the Rev. G. A. Bunbury M.A., who is loyally assisted in the work by a Chinese graduate. There are four men in the student class, twenty boys in the training college, and about fifty boarders and day-boys in the Kowloon preparatory school. The curriculum embraces the essential subjects, the aim of the college being directed rather towards thoroughness of teaching than towards variety. The Chinese language is, at present, the medium of instruction.
THE ELLIS KADOORIE CHINESE SCHOOLS SOCIETY. — This society, whose work extends through Hongkong, Canton, and Shanghai, was formed at the suggestion of the well-known merchant whose name it bears. Its chief object is to overcome the difficulty felt by the Chinese poor of obtaining a sound education on Western lines, and at the same time to see that the Chinese language itself is taught. Six schools have been opened — one in Hongkong, two in Canton, and three in Shanghai — having, in all, over a thousand pupils. The work is carried on by English masters, assisted by a competent staff of Anglo-Chinese teachers, and the curriculum embraces a wide range of subjects, from rudimentary conso-nantal sounds to higher and commercial arithmetic, map-drawing, his-tory, and translation. The Hongkong school is situated in the neighbour-hood of the Government Civil Hospital.
MR. EDWARD ALEXANDER IRVING, Inspector of Schools, Hongkong, was born in 1870, and at the age of twenty-one joined the Perak Civil Service as a junior officer. Whilst in the Malay States he qualified in law, and acquired a knowledge of Malay, Hakka, and Canton-ese, and filled various appointments in Perak and Selangor in the Mines Departments and Chinese Protectorate. He arrived in Hongkong in April, 1901, as Inspector of Schools, and has held that office ever since, except on two occasions when he acted as Registrar-General and Member of the Legislative Council. He resides at "Kinta," the Peak.
A PROPOSED UNIVERSITY. — A proposal to establish a university in Hongkong assumed a tangible form in March, 1908, when Mr. Mody, a
local gentleman well-known for his public benefactions, promised $150,000 for the purpose of erect-ing the necessary buildings, on condition that a site and an en-dowment fund were provided. The idea of a local university was first mooted in the China Mail some few years previously. It was suggested by this journal that the nucleus of the university should be the Medical College and the Technical Institute, that the en-dowment fund should be raised by the public, and that a grant of land should be made by the Gov-ernment. At the time of writing, this scheme is under the consid-eration of the local Legislature, and it is very probable that a site at West Point, on the Bonham Illus. 4.21 Mr. H.N. Mody Road level, will be granted.
MR. H.N. MODY, whose munificence is referred to in the foregoing paragraph, comes of a well-known Parsee family, is one of the oldest residents, and one of the most striking personalities in financial circles, in Hongkong. It is more than forty-seven years since he came to the Colony to enter the service of a firm of Hindoo bankers and opium merchants. With them he remained for three years before launching his own opium business, which rapidly grew to large dimensions. With the advent of the submarine cable, however, Mr. Mody realised that the halcyon days of the operations in opium were gone, so he turned his attention to dealing in stocks and shares and to exchange brokerage. Refusing to recognise the existence of such a word as "impossible" he soon came to the front, and for years he has played the leading part on the local stock exchange, carrying through many transactions of considerable magnitude. More than once he lost his all, for in his career he has had difficulties to over-come and obstacles to surmount, but with fine courage and estimable self-confidence he has braved the storms and steered his barque to safely. Always possessed of a marvellous memory and a wonderful fund of energy and zeal, even now, at an age when most business men are content to rest on their laurels, his activity is proverbial. He has built up an extensive business in exchange brokerage, having acquired the control of the bulk of the settlements made by many important Indian firms in the
Colony, and, with the large fortune amassed by these means, he has mate-rially assisted in the development of the island. With his partner, Sir Paul Chater, CMC , Mr. Mody is connected with most of the important indus-trial concerns, and was closely associated with Mr. A. H. Rennie in the establishment of the Hongkong Milling Company, Ltd., in which promis-ing enterprise he holds a large number of shares. Numerous and varied as are Mr. Mod/s business interests, however, he still finds time to take a prominent part in social life. Many charitable institutions have benefited considerably by his munificence, and though he carries on his good work in a quiet unostentatious manner, his benevolence and public spirit are gratefully recognised by the community. The Colony will soon be en-riched by a magnificent statue of H.R.H. the Princess of Wales, a gift from Mr. Mody, which is now being executed in England. Mr. Mody also takes great interest in sport, and for many years has been a staunch supporter of the Hongkong Jockey Club, at whose annual race meeting his colours are always to the fore. On several occasions he has won the local Derby as well as other important races. Mr. Mody brings to the turf that integrity and steadfastness of purpose which have served him so well in business, and the enthusiastic manner in which his many victories have been ac-claimed testifies unmistakably to the high place he occupies in the public esteem. His hospitality, too, is renowned and, among all nationalities, he is recognised as a prince of good fellows.
26. A view of the building of an educational 'system' (Illus. 4.22).
The editor/author of this book customarily makes use of a cartoon similar to the one below, for teaching purposes. In these circumstances, however, he is able to take advantage of multiple overlays on an overhead projector screen. This technique enables him to 'build up' the system in front of his students and to demonstrate how (and when) the protective, consolidating hands of the Education Department and the Education Ordinance came into action. In this static version of the same idea, readers may wish to query the placement of the various building blocks and to consider the comments being suggested about the foundations and about the stability and design (or their opposites) of the whole structure.
Illus. 4.22 A view of the building of an educational 'system'.
Chapter Five
ENLARGEMENT AND VERNACULARIZATION 1914-41
COMMENTARY
Hong Kong's educational 'system', legitimized and empowered by the first Edu-cation Ordinance of 1913, was influenced in the next few decades by three main factors: demographic, political and economic.
The population of Hong Kong increased from an estimated 501,304 in mid-1914 to a census count of 625,166 in 1921,840,473 in 1931, and to 1,639,377 in 1941 (the Census for this last year including only estimated figures for the New Territo-ries). The total school-population rose from 19,381 in 1914, to 35,282 in 1921,68,593 in 1931, and 118,193 in 1939. There must have been at least 120,000 pupils in school in 1941.
The fact that the general population and the school population became so much enlarged and, therefore, apparently, more substantial during this period must not, however, be taken to indicate that there was any greater degree of social cohesion or community coherence. Indeed, the Seamen's Strike of 1922, the Anti-British General Strike and Boycott of 1925-26, and especially, the renewed and conspicuously larger wave of Chinese refugees entering Hong Kong from the late 1930s in reaction to the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, contributed to the heightening of socio-ethnic fragmentation. As early as 1914, E.A. Irving, the first Director of Education, commented:
But the main educational problem attaches to the Urban Chinese. It has been shown how they all, with the partial exception of the poorest, are bound to the Colony by the easiest of connections. This ephemeral quality of merchant or shop-keeper very greatly relieves the sense of responsibil-ity with which an educator must regard him. There need be no talk of free, much less of compulsory education. The Chinese, as a rule, comes here for what he can make; so we must educate his sons for what we can make of them. How much is that?
Since Chinese is so difficult a language that it is only studied by Government Officials, Missionaries and Sikh policemen, English must be the general medium of communication. Thus at the very outset we are committed to the establishment of English Schools for Chinese, not as a moral obligation but as a commercial necessity.. -1
1. Imperial Conference Papers, Educational Systems of the Chief Colonies not possessing Respon-sible Government — Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Noronha & Co., Government Printers, 1914), p.
10. See also Evidence 1 below.
Shortly after the 1925 Strike and Boycott, Professor Lancelot Forster reached the following, quite different conclusions about the situation, though he started from some similar observations about the lack of a deep sense of loyalty to the British among the local Chinese:
. . . Not less but more education, an education that touches not the select few, but the general populace, is what is needed ...
. .. The present noisy element consists of those who have been edu-cated but whose abilities are not engaged in productive occupations, because the economic and political progress of the country has not kept pace with the growth of western knowledge ...
... the Chinese in Hongkong are not governed by the British, they are governed by, and are loyal to Canton. In the course of eleven years residence in the Colony I have yet to meet a pure Chinese who said he was a British subject...
The fact is that Hongkong is merely a pied-de-terre both for British and Chinese residents... The contact between the two races is for mutual gain
— material gain. There is contact but no fusion, no community of thought or feeling...
... The question is can the British Colony ever hope to counteract this [Soviet] influence [on China] by being something more than a commercial community, can it ever become a centre for the diffusion of British ideals and British culture, a place where an intellectual entente can be estab-lished. The attempt has been made. Schools, very efficient ones, have been established, a university has been founded, but in spite of that, there has been no conspicuous adhesion to the British point of view .. ?
This latter point may, perhaps, be partly explained through noting that, in the annual reports by Directors of Education up to 1941, the interests and implicit superiority of British teachers, pupils, administrators and parents seemed to be taken for granted. Thus, for example, the section on 'Schools for Europeans' regularly preceded the section on 'Schools for Asiatics'.3
Even — or perhaps especially — the very end of this period suggested to some observers a lack of rapport between the British overlords of official policy and the Chinese who were both recipients and influencing factors. Thus, it was claimed that:
The attack on Hong Kong in December 1941 demonstrated that Hong Kong, even after 100 years, was still a trading mart, not a community. The
2.
See also Evidence 22 in this chapter.
3.
This attitude can be traced back to earlier periods; for example, in his Annual Reports, Irving regularly defined the schools in the following manner: 'An Upper Grade School means one in which at least part of the Staff is European. Lower Grade Schools are those under purely native management' {Hong Kong Government Gazette, 30 June 1905, p. 1023).
Chinese showed little loyalty to the British, and the British little concern
for or trust in the Chinese.4
Battle-shocked soldiers from British, Indian or Canadian regiments, or from the local Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps did not receive a boost to morale, as they were desperately striving to defend Hong Kong, by the sight of looters taking short-term advantage of the anarchy of December 1941 or by the evidence of quite considerable fifth-column support for the invaders. At least one civilian noted that opportunity was taken to settle old scores, as mobs of relatively poor and disadvantaged local Chinese ransacked the homes of the local Chinese and Eurasian elite, accusing them of being the running dogs of British colonialism and gleefully roaring 'Sing Lei! Sing LeiV to mark their own long-awaited victory.5 To some commentators, it appeared that, despite the proud claims made a few months before about the achievements of a century of British occupation of Hong Kong, internal weaknesses inherent in Hong Kong society had brought about the dramatic disintegration of that society, the end of its educational system: indeed, the end of its privilege-laden world. The atmosphere of the whole period may, on the other hand, seem to other observers to indicate especially strong influences from outside Hong Kong which ensured a particularly fragile sense of Hong Kong identity.
There can be no doubt that extraneous events and influences had a strong impact on the development of schooling in Hong Kong during this period. Espe-cially important were:
(a)
The influence of the Chinese Revolution and other nationalistic and cultural movements in China (such as the May Fourth Movement of 1919, and the strikes and boycotts of the early 1920s, the 'New Life' Movement of the late 1920s and 1930s). The development of vernacular education inside Hong Kong, with, eventually, some Government support, may be seen in this light; the participation of school pupils in the 1925 Strike and Boycott should also be noted, as well as attempts by the Chinese Nationalist Party and Govern-ment in China to influence the structure and curricula of Middle Schools in Hong Kong
(b)
The 'Great Depression'. The attention paid to technical education in Hong Kong in the 1930s was explicitly related to anxiety about Hong Kong's economic condition, as was even more directly, the large numbers of children who never went to school; and,
(c)
The outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War and the Second World War. Most obviously, the population influxes, plans for military training (including the drilling of school children in Hong Kong), as well as the increased concern in Britain for the provision and quality of education in its colonies may be attributed to this influence.
4.
Gary Wayne Catron, China and Hong Kong, 1945-1967 (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard Uni-versity, 1971), p. 27.
5.
Interview with Dr K.S. Lo, 2 March 1982. See also Evidence 24 below.
One of the most significant events in this period, as far as an overview of schooling in Hong Kong is concerned, was the visit, in 1935, of Mr E. Burney, M.C., a British H.M.I. The visit was arranged largely as a result of criticisms in Britain of the Annual Reports of the Director of Education, Hong Kong, which were taken to show up the deficiencies of relying upon a generalist without specific knowledge and experience of education as Director of Education.6 Burney travelled to Hong Kong by sea embarking at the end of 1934. He spent over a month in the colony, with side-trips to Canton and Shanghai in order to familiarize himself with the educational systems there, and produced his draft Report immediately on his return to Britain in late March. The final version of the Report is dated 27 May 1935. The Burney Report comprises, in the main, a forthright criticism of Hong Kong's educational policy. Burney accused the Hong Kong Government of ne-glecting primary education in the vernacular, leaving it too much in the hands of out-of-date private schools. He argued that even secondary education in English, which, at that time, was more fully maintained by public funds, was too academic and not sufficiently related to practical needs. He recommended, therefore, that the Government should associate itself more completely with primary education in Chinese and that, in this sphere, as in the sphere of secondary education, both grammar and technical curriculum and methods should be improved by being related more closely to the environment and the needs of Hong Kong society.
In the years that followed, some attempts were made to implement the Burney Report The establishment of the (Northcote) Training College and the Trade School, the eventual appointment of a Director of Education actually qualified and experienced in education (rather than yet another career civil servant), and the attention paid to physical education and hygiene may all be viewed, at least partly, as consequences of Burney's visit. It might be noted, however, that some-thing resembling a rearguard (and very defensive) action was conducted by the Director of Education of the time, G.R. Sayer, who thereby earned the displeasure of the influential Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies (ACEC).7
6.
See the Chronicle for 1934 and 1935, Evidence 16, and f.n. 22 below.
7.
The establishment of a special advisory committee in Britain to deal with educational matters in at least some of the colonies dates back to 1923 when, partly under the influence of the first Phelps-Stokes Report on education in Africa, the Advisory Committee on Native Education in the British Tropical African Dependencies was formed. This committee issued its first memorandum in 1925, the initial draft of which owed much to Lord Lugard. The 1925 statement pressed for more positive efforts to be devoted to education in the tropical African colonies in the interests of modernization within a context of stability. In the 'thirties, the advisory committee advocated the use of the vernacular as the language of instruction, particularly at primary school level, argued for increasing the generosity of grant-in-aid schemes, and supported missionary schools as a means of spreading education as widely as possible. In 1929, the Committee was offered a wider jurisdiction and renamed the Advisory Committee for Education in the Colonies. The continuing importance of African concerns may be reflected in its own sub-committee structure, Hong Kong affairs, for example, being dealt with under the 'Non-African Sub-committee'. Furthermore, the
Questions which may repay further thought and the search for further evi-dence include:
*
Why did official attitudes towards and policies for the teaching of the English and Chinese languages change during this period?
*
In what ways did the 'China factor' encourage and in what ways did it hinder educational change in Hong Kong in the years 1914-41?
*
How did public opinion affect the development of schooling in Hong Kong during the period?
*
Which, if any, of Burney's criticisms of the Hong Kong educational system are still appropriate today?
*
In which ways, if any, would a typical school-day in the 1920s or 1930s differ for (a) the pupils; (b) the teachers; (c) the administrators; and (d) the parents, from a typical school-day in the 1980s?
CHRONICLE
1914: Publicity was given to efforts at a justification of the Education Ordinance by Irving, the Director of Education, after some dissension in the press: 'It is justified generally on the grounds that the public are entitled to protec-tion, so far as a Government Department can give it... There is the further argument that state expenditure on education cannot be economically controlled unless the extent of that private educational effort is known, which it professes to supplement. Without compulsory registration this knowledge is unattainable. In Hong Kong there is the further reason that schools are liable to become cover for unlawful propaganda.'
It should be noted that the Ordinance effected the abolition of the Board of Vernacular Primary Education. The Grant Code was revised, upper classes of Anglo-Chinese schools being encouraged by grants to take the Matriculation and Junior Local
next important policy statement issued was the 'Memorandum on the Education of African Communities of 1935', largely under the influence of Sir Fred Clarke. This statement rein-forced the idea that the school was to be a vital part of the process of the social change which was already beginning to occur in these colonies, clearly asserted that the educational programme was to be 'part of a more comprehensive programme directed to the improve-ment of the total life of the community' (Advisory Committee for Education in the Colonies, Memorandum on the Education of African Communities, Col. No. 103, London: HMSO, 1935, p. 4), and was particularly concerned to achieve the most effective rural re-construction of the African colonial societies. Edmund Burney also became an influential member of the ACEC shortly after his visit to Hong Kong, and, later, the Chairman of the Non-African Sub-committee. For further details of the ACEC's disagreements with G.R. Sayer about the implementation of the Burney Report, see Evidence 17, below. It might be noted that Sayer even produced a minority report (when he was in a minority of one) to the Lindsell Committee's Report on Teacher Education, 1938.
Examinations of the University of Hong Kong. In addition the new Grant Code stated: In the case of Chinese boys unless specially exempted by the Director, it [Grant School education] shall include instruction in the Chi-nese written language for at least 6 hours a week. No Chinese boy failing to pass a qualifying entrance examination in the Chinese written examina-tion based on a 2 years course of study may be admitted without special reference to the Director../'... another axiom on which our educational policy rests is that the Chinese are not educated unless they possess a reasonable facility with their own written language.'8
1915: The Director of Education offered his opinion that 'State supervision has justified itself.
Attempts were made to re-organize the elementary curriculum 'to give the child at the end of 3 years a useful knowledge of about 2,000 characters which would enable him to master the sense of a simple pas-sage and write a simple letter.'
St. Paul's Girls' College (re-organized and renamed, after the Second World War, St. Paul's Co-educational College) was established.
The Rev. H.R. Wells left the staff of Queen's College, having perfected the pari-passu system, by which Chinese pupils were compelled to keep their Chinese and English studies in step.
1916: A Department of Education (for teacher training) was opened in the Arts Faculty of Hong Kong University, teaching undergraduates in the Faculty of Arts.
Mr Lau Chu Pak, in a speech at the Legislative Council, expressed his concern about the English standards of Chinese pupils and recommended that the Government appoint a committee to investigate the teaching of Chinese pupils in English so as to increase the efficiency of the teaching of English.
1917: A Committee was appointed to 'enquire into the teaching of the English language to Chinese boys in Government schools, and to examine the question whether by a reduction in the number of other subjects more time can be devoted to such teaching'. The Report stated: We do not recommend any change in the present arrangements, and do not consider that too many subjects are being taught or that too much time is being devoted to such subjects.' Instead, the Committee recommended:
(a)
smaller classes, better buildings and better-paid teachers;
(b)
the appointment of one English teacher to a maximum of 120 pupils;
(c)
the medical inspection of pupils in Government schools.
8. This policy is consistent with the ideas of Frederick Stewart. For example, see Chapter 3, Evidence 1(d). It was probably more directly influenced, however, by the Revolution in China.
347
1918: The system of medical examinations for school children was introduced. The Education Department made it a condition of entry to any Govern-ment or Grant School that pupils should pay a medical subscription equivalent to a month's school fees. Ch'en Jung-Kun moved his ssu-shu from Macau to Hong Kong, where it became one of the most popular of all local private Chinese schools run on traditional lines.9
1919: The May Fourth Movement spread among students and workers in China, provoking enthusiastic nationalistic sentiments and eventually incorpo-rating a National Language Movement. The Hong Kong Wah Yan College was founded by two Catholic laymen in December at 60 Hollywood Road. It moved to new premises in Robinson Road (presently occupied by Raimondi College) two years later and was transferred to the supervision of the Society of Jesus in December 1932.
1920: In the Education Department Report for the year it was stated that: 'It is a well-known fact that the candidates who matriculate from the Straits have a higher knowledge of English as a whole than the average of the Hongkong pupils: the reason in fairness to local schools should be known also. Here by common consent Chinese boys are expected to study Chinese, and this involves three years preliminary study in a Vernacular School, and about eight periods weekly for the eight years of their school career. In the Straits on the contrary it is not held essential that Chinese should be able to write their language ...' (p. 4) The Government does not operate any pure vernacular schools but assists them in four ways: (1) grants, (2) subsidies, (3) inspection, (4) operating normal schools.' (p. 5) The Board of Education was established 'for the purpose of assisting the Director of Education in matters pertaining to the development and improvement of education in the Colony. The Board comprised the Direc-tor of Education, the Senior Inspector of English Schools, the Senior In-spector of Vernacular Schools, and nine nominated members.. / (p. 9) Following the Report of the University Commission, which recom-mended increased Government assistance for the University of Hong Kong, the Government paid the University's debts and made a grant of $1 million.
9. It was, however, more reformist and less Confucianist in character than the Hsiang-fu school run by his cousin, Lu Tzu-Chiin, who had transferred his ssu-shu from Macau to Hong Kong in 1911 and taught in it until 1944. See Bernard Luk, 'Lu Tzu-Chiin and Ch'en Jung-Kun: Two Exemplary Figures in the 'Ssu-shu' Education of Pre-War Urban Hong Kong,' in David Faure, James Hayes and Alan Birch (eds.), From Village to City: Studies in the Traditional Roots of Hong Kong Society (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1984), pp. 119-28.
1921: The Vernacular Normal School for Men and Vernacular Normal School for Women were established.
Women were admitted into the University of Hong Kong, at least partly as a response to the increased feminism in China and Hong Kong stimulated especially amongst the educated classes during the 'May Fourth' period.
The Government (as represented by E.R. Halifax, Secretary for Chi-nese Affairs) was reluctant to support the idea of starting up an industrial school for poor boys (later the Aberdeen Trade School), even though the proposal was made by such notables as Lau Chu Pak, Chow Shou-son (both members of the Legislative Council), Fung Ping Shan, Lee Yau Chuen, Sir Robert Ho Tung and R.H. Kotewall — on the grounds that Hong Kong could not be expected to provide such an institution for the whole of South China.
A Commission was appointed to enquire into 'the conditions of the industrial employment of children' on 24 March. The Commission re-ported on 24 October, the majority recommending, inter alia, that no child under the age of eleven should be employed in any factory, that no child under the age of thirteen should be engaged in any form of casual labour, that the responsibility for proving a child's age should rest with the employer, that the hours of work for children should not exceed fifty-four per week and not include the hours between 7 p.m. and 6 a.m., and that Inspectors be appointed for all classes of child labour. The proposal by one member to introduce compulsory education was not supported by E.A. Irving, the Director of Education, on the grounds that 'the first point to be considered is the money'.10
The Grant system was largely abandoned (with the exception of five schools under European management and with specially recruited expa-triate staff) and replaced by a system of monthly subsidies, mainly for the smaller Vernacular schools, subject to the reports of inspectors.
1922: A Vernacular Sub-committee of the Board of Education was appointed. Government subsidies to Vernacular schools were increased (3 times the 1921 level). A model syllabus was drawn up for grant and subsidized vernacular schools. A meeting between Halifax and Messrs. R.H. Kotewall, Fung Ping Shan and Lee Yau Chuen reached agreement over adopting a residential qualification for potential pupils of the proposed industrial school, but further progress was delayed by political, social and financial problems (especially the strike led by seamen in 1922 and the 1925 Strike and Boycott). The Rockefeller Foundation endowed three chairs at the University of
10. For further details, see Evidence 4 below.
Hong Kong by providing an endowment grant of $500,000: the new chairs were of Medicine, Surgery and Obstetrics.
1923: At the meeting of the Board of Education on 18 January, the following resolutions were passed (and subsequently implemented by the Educa-tion Department): That a Kindergarten School for [British] children between the ages of 5 and 9 be established, on the most modern methods, with specially trained Kindergarten teachers, at Quarry Bay. That the education of British children over the age of 9 be centred in one school and that children over 9 shall not be.admitted into any other Government British School. That the parents be invited to cooperate especially in the matter of regular attendance of children.' At the 11 April meeting of the Board of Education, the following resolution was passed: 'That with a view to increasing the utility of the Board of Education the Government be asked to 'authorize the Board to visit in its official capacity, the educational establishments of the Colony, and, if the neces-sity arises, to report thereon', with the proviso That such visits should be conducted by not more than three members of the Board at one time, one of whom should be an Inspector of Schools, and that the Inspectors of Schools should notify members of the Board of their intention to visit schools and to invite their attendance/ As a consequence of this resolution, the following addition was made to the Grant Code: 'The Director is empowered to visit Grant Schools at any time during Code hours without notice. Members of the Board of Education are simi-larly empowered when accompanied by the Director. At the same meeting, the Board resolved to meet monthly in future. At its meeting on 5 September, the Board resolved, on the advice of a sub-committee especially appointed to consider the matter, that Portu-guese should be taught in the Belilios Public School as an experiment. This resolution was duly put into effect. The foundation stone of a new Government Boys' school (to be called King's College) was laid. The Ordinance protecting young children employed in industry was passed.
1924: The Kowloon Wah Yan College was opened by Mr Peter Tsui in Portland Street, with two classes of twenty-four boys. Mr E.A. Irving, the first Director of Education, retired and was suc-ceeded by Mr G.N. Orme who held office for little more than a year.11
11. Orme was invalided from the Government service in December 1925 and replaced by Mr A.E. Wood.
The Annual Education Department Report for 1924 (actually published in 1925) outlined policy and priorities and, in this way, was different from and much more informative than the last several Reports produced by Orme's predecessor.12
1925: Maryknoll Convent school opened its first (kindergarten) classes.
The May 30th Tragedy713 took place in Shanghai. This intensified the unpopularity of British in Hong Kong and led to the General Strike and Boycott. On Thursday 18 June, about 80% of the senior boys from Queen's College absented themselves from lessons. Pupils from other schools fol-lowed this lead in the next few days. Some schools closed temporarily; others operated with a reduced intake. A Strike, beginning with the House-boys' Union and the Tram-workers', was organized largely by the Labour Federation in Canton. By 22 June, the South China Morning Post reported that the strike was 'pretty general'. To this strike, the Canton authorities added a call for the boycott of British goods. A state of emergency was declared in Hong Kong, during which, for part of the time, the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps was mobilized and local Chinese loyal to the Hong Kong Government helped run essential services. Boy scouts, for example, acted as messengers for the Telegraph Offices. When schools re-opened on 7 September, the enrolment was reduced by about 50%.
12.
See Evidence 10 below, for extracts from the 1924 Report.
13.
On 30 May 1925, a crowd mainly of Chinese students who were demonstrating near the International Settlement in Shanghai because of the murder of a Chinese labourer working in a Japanese cotton mill in the Foreign Settlement was fired upon by a detachment of British-officered police. A British Inspector of Police, Edward W. Everson, directed the crowd to leave and, when they instead advanced on the police station, Everson ordered his men to open fire. The shooting resulted in seven deaths and a large number of wounded. It also led to an upsurge of anti-British feeling throughout China. This was not allayed by the attitude of British officials who defended the action of the police as consistent with their legal powers to use arms as a last resort and who attempted to refute communist allegations that the police had fired upon peaceful students. The British ambassador, for example, wrote that 'the action of the police was fully justified by the events with which they had to deal...' The attitude of the British Government and British officials was that, although they did not like and wished to avoid violence, if the situation warranted it, they would resort to force again. This attitude was soon put to test by events. On 23 June 1925, a huge demon-stration was held with the aim of taking over the Shameen concession in Canton as a protest against the police action in Shanghai. All European reports of the incident claim that shots were first fired from the Chinese side and that the forces guarding the British and French concessions then fired back. More than fifty Chinese were killed and over double that number wounded. The British Consul-General at Canton had no doubts that the Chinese were responsible for the shooting and blamed Comintern advisers from the Soviet Union for provoking the riot. The Shameen incident led directly to a widespread boycott move-ment against British goods throughout southern China. This affected all major ports and, especially, the British colony of Hong Kong, where, as will be seen, school pupils took a leading part in the organization of a 'Strike and Boycott' which lasted until October 1926.
The Government Tai Po Vernacular Normal School was opened. A Medical Officer of Schools, Dr E.M. Minett (a woman doctor) was appointed.
1926: The policy (announced in the Annual Education Report of 1924) of limiting class-size in Government schools to thirty, while permitting larger num-bers in Grant, Subsidized and Private schools, was implemented; the im-plementation was facilitated by the marked reduction in numbers, espe-cially at Government schools, caused by the 1925 Strike and Boycott.
The Government Vernacular Middle School (later renamed Clementi Middle School) was founded, including a TSIormal Division' and a 'Higher Primary Division', and absorbing the Government Vernacular Normal School for Men, as well as the Confucian Middle School.
Several private schools also opened Middle School classes during the year. Munsang College was established in rented premises at Kaitak Bund to cater for children living in Kowloon City. The first boys were enrolled into King's College in September.
1927: In January, King's College commenced as a secondary school, with mainly pupils transferred from the old Saiyingpun District School. The Vernacular Normal School for Women was extended to include a third year.
The Maryknoll Sisters founded a school, then known as Holy Spirit School, in Robinson Road. This can be treated as the direct ancestor-institution of the Maryknoll Sisters' School and Marymount Primary and Secondary Schools.
1928: The Overseas Chinese Education Committee was established in February under the Ministry of Education in China and issued its first regulations for the registration of overseas schools.14
14. These regulations were amended in 1929 and again in 1934. In June 1929, the Chi Nan University, which was established to promote overseas Chinese education, convened a Nan Yang Education Conference. This was attended by 78 representatives from Southeast Asia, including representatives from the British, French, Dutch and American colonies in the region. Another Overseas Chinese Conference was organized by the Central Training Department of the Kuomintang in November. The three main factors which help to explain the increasing attention paid by the Chinese Government to overseas Chinese affairs, especially education, at this time are (a) rivalry with Japan in Southeast Asia; (b) concern about anti-Chinese movements in the region; and, (c) anxiety about the spread of Commu-nism. See T.C Cheng, The Education of Overseas Chinese . . .', pp. 234-62. See also the Chronicle for 1931 and 1932 below, as well as Evidence 15 and f.n. 14. As this evidence suggests, although Education Department officials in Hong Kong occasionally made claims to the contrary, the registration of Hong Kong schools with the Overseas Chinese Education Committee and, later, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission, had implications for the curricula followed in those schools.
The new school structure (operating since 1921 in parts of China) was introduced into some schools in Hong Kong, based on the American 6-3-3 plan (i.e. six years primary schooling, followed by three years in junior secondary school and then three years in senior secondary school).
The School of Chinese Studies opened at the University of Hong
Kong. King's College was officially opened. The Wong Ngai Chung Moong Yeung School, a charity school for
poor Chinese pupils, was founded by a merchant group headed by Mr Luk Cheuk Man. It was later taken over by the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals.
1929: A contunittee was appointed 'to draw up a syllabus which all private schools must follow7, ostensibly 'to make the standard of the vernacular schools uniform', but also to control Kuomintang influences and text-books in Hong Kong schools.15 It should be noted that in 1929 the Sin-gapore authorities actually forbade the teaching of San Min Chu I in Chinese schools. A Physical Training class for teachers was started at the Technical Institute. An Overseas Education Planning Committee was appointed under the aegis of the Ministry of Education in China. The Fung Ping Shan Library was built and endowed at the University of Hong Kong. The Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies was estab-lished in Britain to advise the Secretary of State for the Colonies on all matters pertaining to colonial education. The ACEC examined the annual Reports of Colonial Directors of Education, often critically, and attempted to establish a coherent policy which could be applied to all colonies and which would not generate criticism from such foreign powers as the United States of America.
1930: A committee was appointed 'to examine the Chinese syllabus for English
[i.e. Anglo-Chinese] schools with a view to the revision thereof. It recom-mended more practical knowledge of the Chinese written language, more up-to-day books, less teaching of the Classics and Chinese History — based on the assumption that pupils already had four years of preliminary Chinese education before entering the Anglo-Chinese schools.
15. The Annual Report of the Inspector of Vernacular Schools for 1935 includes: The change of the educational system in China during the past two decades has produced a different type of teachers and all registered schools in the Colony are now able to adopt the Model Syllabus which was approved by the Board of Education in 1929... the present syllabus, a compromise between our own and the one adopted by the Chinese Government in 1925, has proved to be adaptable to the constant changes of educational policy in China.'
In the Education Department Annual Report, the Inspector of Ver-
nacular Schools commented that: '. . . educational reforms have been
going on in all parts of China, and Hong Kong appears to have become the
most congenial centre of the older element and at the same time we have a
new type of teacher whose knowledge of the classics is less profound but
whose general education is somewhat better. The result of all this is that
even the old scholars are now making an effort to run their schools on
modern lines...'
It was announced that Hong Kong University Senior and Junior Local Examinations were to be substituted by a School Certificate Examination in Class 1 (the senior secondary class).
A committee was appointed to report on the possibility of increasing facilities for practical technical education and on the feasibility of estab-lishing a trade school. (N.B. the influence of the Depression.)
The foundation stone of La Salle College was laid on 5 November. The Po Kok School, the first free school for girls, was founded by Lady Clara Ho Tung.
1931: A new set of regulations was issued by the Overseas Chinese Education Committee. These included measures to encourage the teaching of Man-darin (Kwok Yu) and other efforts to exclude Communist influence from schools. On 2 April a 'Free Night School' was established by members of the Hong Kong University Education Society, initially with 20 boys enrolled. The University of Hong Kong's Education Journal commented: 'Professor
L. Forster's advocacy of free education materialized in the form of a free night school managed and financed by the Education Society. This is an outstanding event in the history not only of the Society but also of the University as it is the undergraduates' first attempt to come into contact with the poor of the Colony.'16
The Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission was established in Nank-ing on 7 December, partly as a recognition of the need for a more compre-hensive and effective policy towards the overseas Chinese to elicit sup-port from them, a recognition which was especially keen after the Japa-nese attack on Manchuria in September.
The Hong Kong Committee on Practical Technical Education recom-mended that a Junior Technical School should be established as an experi-mental measure and suggested that the Principal of this proposed new school should also serve as the adviser to the Director of Education on all matters connected with the education of industrial workers.
1932: The building of La Salle College was completed in January. By the end of the year, 805 pupils had enrolled, half of them Catholics.
16. Education Journal (University of Hong Kong) (December 1931), p. 133.
A Sub-committee of the Board of Education produced new Hygiene Regulations for schools (up-dating the Regulations of 1914). Thorough training in Hygiene was to be given to teachers at the Technical Institute classes, as well as instruction to women teachers of vernacular schools in Physical Training.
The Headmistress of Belilios Public School, the leading Government Girls' School, was pleased to note that Physical Education was growing in favour — girls were reported as even prepared to wear shorts for P.E. lessons.
Officials were sent abroad by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Commis-sion of the Chinese Government. According to T.C. Cheng, they probably visited Hong Kong because ever since this year the number of Hong Kong schools registered with the O.C.A.C. grew noticeably.17
The Board of Education recommended the abolition of the Junior and Senior Oxford Locals and their replacement by a School Leaving Certifi-cate Examination which would cater for the non-academic pupils and be divorced from matriculation requirements.18
1933: The Junior Technical School (later Victoria Technical School) opened pro-viding a course for the pre-apprenticeship training of artisans. There were 11 applicants for every single place. Mandarin (Kwok Yu) was added to the curriculum of the Government Vernacular Middle School and the Vernacular Normal School for Women. From the Editorial Notes of the Hong Kong University Education Journal: 'Really, when we are faced with the ever increasing number of Chinese students who have failed in their own language in the Matricula-tion Examinations held by this University during the past few years, we cannot help reflecting seriously upon the disappointing condition of Chi-nese studies in this Colony.' Pui Ching Middle School (Hong Kong) was opened. The City Hall was demolished.
17.
T.C. Cheng, The Education of Overseas Chinese ...', p. 298.
18.
This recommendation was approved and the new examination, conducted by the University of Hong Kong, was first held in June 1935. The examination was not, however, generally recognized to be an improvement and the result was that in June 1937 the Hong Kong School Certificate Examination, controlled by a Syndicate of Headmasters and offi-cials from the Education Department, was established. This examination was taken by pupils in Class 2. Its purpose was to test the candidates' ability to enter general employ-ment, most commonly in business or in the civil service. With regard to the latter, the Government was persuaded to appoint clerks on the basis of this examination, instead of insisting upon a separate examination. Those pupils who were considered suitable for an academic career proceeded to Class 1 where they sat the Matriculation examination con-ducted by the University.
1934: A scheme for the inauguration of a system of technical education was drawn up by Mr G. White, the newly appointed supervisor of technical education. Progress was reported in girls' education and rural education (e.g., enough for the Governor to offer a Challenge Cup for School Gardening in 1935). The Hong Kong Teachers' Association was founded. After receiving critical comments from the Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies (ACEC) about the latest Annual Report of the Director of Education, the Secretary of State for the Colonies decided to invite 'some well-qualified person who is experienced in educational organization in this country and overseas to visit Hong Kong and make a report on the whole question [of the educational system of Hong Kong, especially in the context of change and development in China].. .'19
1935: Aberdeen Trade School was established. The Hong Kong True Light Primary School was set up in Caine Road. Edmund Burney, one of His Majesty's Inspectors of Schools in the
United Kingdom and soon to become a prominent member of the Advi-
sory Committee on Education in the Colonies, visited Hong Kong early in
the year to report on the state of public education.
THE BURNEY REPORT
Summary:
Vernacular Education:
The very small proportion of the Government's expenditure on edu-cation which was devoted to primary education in Chinese was not satis-factory 'for the reason among others that, broadly speaking primary edu-cation is all that the poorer Chinese can afford, and the Government is therefore giving least help to those who are least able to help themselves'. He recommended that 'Government should assume as soon as possible larger responsibilities in primary education, and the best way of doing this would be to build, as a start, two or three large primary schools in the city of Victoria, staff them only with fully trained teachers, inspect them properly, and thus make them fit to serve as models for schools conducted by private enterprise ... An overhaul and speeding up of vernacular edu-cation in Hong Kong would give the British schools [i.e., the Anglo-
19. Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister to Sir William Peel, Governor of Hong Kong, Confidential, 11 July 1934. See also Evidence 16 below and note that the initiative for the visit (and, therefore, for the eventual Burney Report) came from Britain not from Hong Kong.
Chinese schools] a much better start than they have now. The method of selecting entrants to English schools, from the usually large numbers of candidates should be reviewed in the light of educational practice else-where .. . The use of carefully-planned intelligence tests, which the Ver-nacular Inspectorate might be asked to draw up, would probably improve matters...'
English Education
As the motive had seemed to be utilitarian and vocational, he recom-mended that 'the teaching of English in the schools of Hong Kong should be reformed on a frankly utilitarian basis, i.e., the pupils should be taught to understand, speak, read and write such and so much English as they are likely to need for their subsequent careers and no more... This should set free a certain amount of time. It will have to be very carefully consid-ered:
(1)
whether that time should be given in part or wholly to further instruc-tion in the Chinese language or through the medium of that language;
(2)
how much instruction should be given, to pupils who are believed for the most part not to want it, in the Chinese classics;
(3)
whether the Chinese medium of instruction should be Cantonese, or Kwok Yu, which the Government of China wishes to establish as the universal spoken language throughout China ...
'Education policy in the Colony should be gradually reorientated so as eventually to secure for the pupils, first, a command of their own language sufficient for all needs of thought and expression, and secondly, a command of English limited to the satisfaction of vocational demands . . .' Burney therefore recommended that the course leading up to the School Certificate should be planned as something complete in itself, and not chiefly as a stage on the way to Matriculation, and that this examination should be taken in Class 2, not as it then was, in Class 1. The curriculum in Government and Grant schools should be so widened as to provide rather more liberally than at present for the broad human needs of the pupils. More attention should be paid to their health and adequate allowance should be made in the time-tables for physical education, and other activities such as music, manual instruction, arts and crafts, and organized games.'
Rural Education
The curriculum of the schools was sometimes ill-suited to the needs of the pupils — e.g., the Government School at Un Long gave the children a 3-year English course. 'About half of them, perhaps, continue their educa-tion in other schools. The other half return to the villages to which they belong, and become engaged, like their ancestors before them for many
generations, in the work of tilling the soil... It is difficult to imagine of what use their smattering of English can be to them, though most of the time in this school will have been given to its acquisition.' The curriculum of the rural schools should, therefore, be better related to the environment of most of the pupils.
Technical Education
Here, Burney accepted the force of arguments in favour of trying to help China (c.f. the Central School and the University of Hong Kong). There are two things which China needs more than anything else, at any rate in most of her provinces; namely, honest administration and a higher standard of living for the masses of the people. If Hong Kong can contrib-ute anything, by example and by education, towards these two needs, then the Chinese will have no reason to regard the existence of a British Colony in what may be called their Isle of Wight as anything but a blessing/
Appointment of Director of Education
According to Burney, Hong Kong badly needed effective educational leadership and a clearly understood policy pursued for a reasonable length of time. Burney criticized the use of 'cadet-officers', frequently transferred and often ignorant of education as heads of the Education Department, and recommended 'that the vacant post of Senior Inspector of English Schools should be filled by the best possible candidate obtainable from outside the Colony, and that the new Inspector thus appointed shall, as soon as he has had time to understand the education situation, be made Director of Education.' N.B. Burney's comment: 'The Colony's educational system needs more than anything else a breath of fresh air from outside.'
Other Recommendations Included:
(1)
that necessary arrangements be made for securing teachers competent to provide instruction in Physical Training;
(2)
that, eventually, a new Government Normal School, or considerable additions to present premises, would be necessary;
(3)
that there should be a Health Code for private schools, with a time-limit for compliance.
1936: The first step was taken in September in the conversion of the Un [Yuen] Long Government Rural School from an English to a Higher Primary Vernacular School. By 1938, this process was complete and the Un Long Government Rural School was the only Government Primary Vernacular School with English as a second language.
The foundation stones of the new Maryknoll Convent School (June) and the Hip Yan [Heep Yunn] School (September) were laid by the Gover-nor and, in November, he presided at the celebrations to mark the comple-tion of the building of St. Mary's (Canossian) College, Kowloon.
In order to implement one of Burners recommendations, arrange-ments were made for a School Certificate Examination, to be taken at Class 2, under the control of the Education Department. After an overlap of one year, this was planned to take the place of the existing School Certificate Examination, conducted by the University of Hong Kong, at Class 1 level.
1937: The School Certificate Examination (under the control of a Syndicate and the Education Department) was inaugurated in Class 2. Class 1 became the Matriculation class.
A qualified Physical Training instructor was appointed from the United Kingdom to work full-time for the Education Department. Provision for Physical Training classes in schools was made a condi-tion for a Government grant. Classes were organized for men and women Physical Training in-structors.
Mr C.G. Sollis (a qualified educationalist then in Singapore) was ap-pointed Senior Inspector of Schools. He was later to become Director of Education.
The Government Trade School opened, with departments of wireless telegraphy, building construction, and a course in motor-car mechanics. This Trade School was later re-named the Hong Kong Technical College, and still later, was upgraded to the Hong Kong Polytechnic).
The Technical Institute was re-named the Evening Institute.
The report of the University (1937) Committee was very critical of conditions and standards at Hong Kong University: We cannot but think that financially the University has in the past existed far too much from hand to mouth .. /20
1938: The Hong Kong School Certificate syllabus was revised (e.g. Latin was excluded). A New Subsidy Code was established to promote vernacular educa-tion at the primary level. One of the clauses — 2(viii) — of this new Code explicitly excluded from the possibility of receiving a Hong Kong Govern-ment subsidy those schools which received grants from the Chinese Gov-ernment. The number of government scholarships for needy pupils in Govern-ment and Grant schools was increased.
20. See also Evidence 20 below.
A Committee was appointed to report on the teacher training syllabus in operation at Hong Kong University and the normal classes held in connection with the Evening Institute and to make recommendations in relation to either or both systems. It was also to review the policy of appointing teachers from the United Kingdom and from Hong Kong to schools in the colony, and 'to review the present system of recruitment and training of teachers for the vernacular schools in the Colony7. The Committee, under the chairmanship of Mr Justice Lindsell recommended that: Tor the training of potential Anglo-Chinese teachers at Hong Kong University, students should take the ordinary course (at present a 4-year course) for an Arts Degree, to be followed by a year's post-graduate course for a diploma in teaching, this being in accordance with the resolution of the Faculty of Arts, the Senate and the Council of the Hong Kong University [subsequent to criticism contained in the University (1937) Report]/
The Government should take immediate steps to provide a new centre or centres in the Colony for the training of men and women teach-ers, both Anglo-Chinese and Vernacular; and also a training centre or centres for men and women rural teachers in the New Territories/
1939: The new Government Training College opened in temporary premises. (It moved to its own buildings in 1940 and was named Northcote Training College after the departing Governor). An experiment was begun of using Cantonese as the medium of instruction for subjects other than English in some of the lower classes of Anglo-Chinese schools. Intelligence Tests (plus tests in Chinese and Arithmetic) were intro-duced into Class 8 entrance examinations21 of the Government Anglo-Chinese schools. Handwork, art and singing were introduced in schools, as far as staff was available. Classes for the training of teachers in handwork and art were commenced. Physical Education became part of the compulsory course at the Train-ing College. In May, the Hong Kong University Development Committee pro-duced its report, revealing its support for the broader view of the Univer-sity's aims and declaring that 'the higher education of the inhabitants of the Colony of Hong Kong would not alone have justified the establish-ment of the University'. The University should aim to 'be useful not only to the Colony but to the Chinese people, to students from the interior of China as well as to those from Malaya and the East Indies'. During the committee's hearings, emphasis was placed on the contribution Hong Kong University could make to the development of China in the fields of
21. Class 8, according to the older terminology, was equivalent to today's Primary 5 Qass.
Science and Engineering. One of the Committee's basic conclusions was that, 'this University should fit into a general scheme of Chinese univer-sity development7.22
The physical history records of pupils began to be kept. It was in-tended that from these records a series of standards for the children of Hong Kong would be developed.
In the summer months, it was arranged that all pupils in Government schools should receive one and a half hours' swimming practice weekly. Half the cost of transport was borne by the Government.
A Correspondence Course for teachers who were working in 'over-seas Chinese' communities was organized from Chungking.
Mr C.G. Sollis, who had earlier joined the Education Department from Malaya as Senior Inspector shortly after the publication of the Burney Report, was appointed Director of Education. This was the first time that a professional educationalist was made substantive Director of Education in Hong Kong.23
1940: The Education Ordinance was revised, prescribing a more rigorous stan-dard of sanitation and hygiene and laying down minimum qualifications for teachers of English.
A new Grant Code was drawn up, whereby the existing capitation grant would be replaced by one based on the difference between ap-proved income (fees) and approved expenditure. This stimulated consid-erable opposition from existing Protestant and Catholic Grant Schools which formed themselves into a Grant Schools Council.
22.
See Brian Harrison (ed.), University of Hong Kong: The First 50 Years . . . , pp. 55-56; Bernard Mellor, The University of Hong Kong: An Informal History, pp. 91-95; and, of course, the Report itself, which is easily available in, for example, the Library of the University of Hong Kong.
23.
As Burney had critically pointed out, the earlier practice had been to appoint a Cadet officer, i.e. a generalist with no special knowledge or experience of education. Edwin Ralphs, who had formerly taught at Queen's College and later was Inspector of Schools, had acted as Director in 1930 and had been succeeded by another old Queen's College master, Mr G.P. de Martin (although only an Acting Director, Mr de Martin held office for three years). The two substantive Directors of the 'thirties were N.L. Smith (1933-34), who was to rise to the rank of Secretary for Chinese Affairs and Colonial Secretary in Hong Kong and G.R. Sayer (1934-39), the local historian, who was the immediate cause of Burney7 s ire. See also Evidence 17.
According to Gwynneth Stokes, quoting W.L. Handyside, 'Mr. Sollis immediately set himself to learn Chinese, visited all schools, went out of his way to get to know the members of the [Education] Department and supported whole-heartedly the Teachers' Association. The whole tone of the Department changed for the better after his appoint-ment.' (Gwynneth Stokes, Queen's College 1862-1962, p. 142n.) Sollis also set to work imme-diately to prepare a Five Year Plan, which entailed the building of 50 new Government vernacular primary schools. See Chronicle for 1941 below.
Six schools benefited from visual aids (including films), hired locally
by the Hong Kong Teachers' Association. Munsang College moved into its new building. The first year of the correspondence course for overseas Chinese
teachers, organized from Chungking, began in July with 182 teachers enrolled in Hong Kong.
The famous White Paper on the welfare and development of the British colonies (Cmd. 6175) was published in February, having been presented to Parliament on 20 February. Consequently, Parliament passed the first Colonial Development and Welfare Act. This Act provided funds for various projects, including the support of educational services in the colonies. Although wartime exigencies hindered immediate implementa-tion of CD&W schemes, the Act itself is a clear indication of the changing attitudes in British Government circles towards the colonies, marking a much more enthusiastic acceptance of responsibility for welfare and de-velopment of colonial societies and governments. The new outlook was at least partly a recognition of the assistance which Britain was receiving from the colonies towards the war effort and, perhaps, partly a response to anti-British propaganda which emphasized the exploitative nature of British colonialistic policies.
1941: War-time Rhodes Studentships were extended to Hong Kong students. One of the two first recipients was Rayson Huang, later Vice-Chancellor of the University of Hong Kong. A new Subsidy Code was announced, along with plans for building 50 new Vernacular Primary schools. 8 December: at 8.00 a.m., simultaneously with the attack on Pearl Harbour, the Japanese launched their invasion of Hong Kong. The first action was an air-raid on Kai Tak airfield and, soon, Japanese troops began crossing the Shum Chun River to advance into the New Territories. This led to heavy fighting, first on the mainland and then, from 18 Decem-ber, on Hong Kong island. 25 December: Hong Kong surrendered to the Japanese.
EVIDENCE
1. E.A. Irving, The Educational System of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Government Printer, 1914), pp. 8-13 (Illus. 5.1).
Irving's 1914 publication is basically a rehash of his contribution to the 1911 Imperial Education Conference in London on Educational Systems of the Chief Colonies not pos-sessing Responsible Government. The Conference Papers were published by H.M.S.O. in 1915 and the extract below offers a clear indication of Irving''s opinions and priorities.
Iii dealing with the Chinese population it may be well to be rid at once of the boat population. These live, marry, and die in the thousand sea-going junks and slipper-shaped boats called sampans so characteristic of the Hongkong harbour. I have classified them as " Rural," because they have the characteristic of permanence. At any rate they are not townspeople. Veiy little is known about them. They have big families, as the figures show, and no education, unless it is education which teaches a child of ten how to gybe a crank, round-bottomed craft in a gale. A few of their grubby urchins may attend the Vernacular Schools intermittently for a year or two. It should be understood that these people are a class apart from the other Chinese. The educational scheme of the Colony is open to them, but has not caught them hitherto.
Some description of the Chinese Rural Population proper has already been given. They are, fishers and farmers alike, hard-working, ignorant, narrow, and superstitious, as may well be imagined. What is more surprising is their desire for education and the respect in which they hold it. Of the schools which they have developed unaided, as well as of the assistance they receive from the Government, a description is given here-after.
There remains for consideration the most important section of the community, the Chinese Urban Population of all sorts and conditions, merchants, clerks, shopkeepers, and skilled and casual ' labour. To the number of 270,000 and upwards it has been attracted to our shores in the last 70 years by opportunities of business and its appreciation of security, but in the main not as to a home, but as a miner to his camp, a place where gold is won to be enjoyed elsewhere. The average urban Chinese never regards Hongkong in any other light: he returns to his village every festival day of his life, and if he dies here retires thither for burial. This does not prevent him from establishing domestic ties with us ; but the proportion of children to adults, as already shown, is little more than one-half what it is in the case of his compatriots of the rural and boat populations. The inference is fairly clear that half his wives and children are absent in China.
EDUCATIONAL POLICY.
It will next be convenient to explain briefly the policy adopted with reference to the education of each of these sections of the population before describing the schools and other educa-tional institutions which are the embodiment of that policy.
Illus. 5.1 An extract from E.A. Irving, The Education System of Hong Kong,
English children born in the tropics have the same right to a wholesome education as have their happier home-born brothers, though the circumstances of climate and tropical environment must in any case weigh heavily against them. In the words of the Committee of Education of 1901: "It is " undesirable that they should in their most impressionable " years be associated with the children of alien beliefs and " other ethical standards." It is particularly undesirable that they should get an insight into mixed and illegitimate estab-lishments. Further, it is not possible to yoke young English children, who have a knowledge of their own speech but of little else, with much older children who know a great deal else, and wish to begin the study of English.
It is upon these considerations that the British Schools were founded. It is believed that these schools are pioneers in the history of education of the Empire. The Government realises the justice of making the ratepayers contribute as little as possible towards the cost of this special class of schools, and the fees are therefore put as high as the parents can afford.
These schools are conducted on a Protestant-Christian basis and are visited by the clergy of the Anglican and Union Churches.
The obligation to supply a good education to our Indian fellow-subjects is strongly felt A small school under Indian masters has long been maintained for their exclusive use, and a still smaller one was recently opened at Kowloon. They act as feeders to the District Schools and Queen's College, where the Indian boys hold their own without much difficulty among the ablest Chinese. No particular description of these schools is needed.
The establishment of a superior school for Indians is under contemplation. Scholastically speaking, the difficulty of com-bining the education of Chinese and Indians is that while each class needs to learn its own written language (Urdu in the case of Indians), Chinese is by far the more exacting and lengthy study.
Indigenous, yet of alien nationality, domiciled half here,
half in Macao, it might be hard to establish the precise
educational claim of the Portuguese. Fortunately the question
does not arise. Their schooling is amply supplied by the
various Roman Catholic Missions, as will be described later.
In any case the demand for a good supply of educated Portu-
guese to fill clerkships, especially the higher ones, would have
to be satisfied.
The case of the boat population is this. They are indige-
nous. which gives them a moral claim to education. On the
Illus. 5.1 (Continued)
other hand, they have no natural desire for it. The alternative
seems to lie between compulsory education with its vast
attendant difficulties in Hongkong, and the policy of masterly ^inactivity which the Education Department has hitherto
adopted.
Until 1913 hardly anything was done for the rural popu-
lation except the establishment by the Missions of one or two
Vernacular Grant Schools. Three small Government Schools
where English is taught are also maintained in the New Terri-
tories ; but they are of little importance, and not worth a
detailed description. An indigenous population and one with
a deep respect for education, the New Territories have urgent
claims, and the obligation of the Government to meet them is
heavy. That so little has hitherto been done is due to two
causes—lack of funds and the preponderant need during the
past 12 years of establishing a sound secondary system of
education in Hongkong. The beginning of an elaborate system
has been made, under which the best private schools in the
New Territories are to be encouraged by small subsidies. This
system is described below.
But the main educational problem attaches to the Urban
Chinese. It has been shown how they all, with the partial
exception of the poorest, are bound to the Colony by the easiest
of connections. This ephemeral quality of merchant or shop-
keeper very greatly relieves the sense of responsibility with
which an educator must regard him. There need be no talk
of free, much less of compulsory, education. The Chinese, as
a rule, comes here for Avhat he can make ; so we must educate
his sons for what we can make of them. How much is that ?
Since Chinese is so difficult a language that it is only
studied by Government Officials, Missionaries, and Sikh police-
men, English must be the general medium of communication.
Thus at the very outset we are committed to the establishment
of English Schools for Chinese, not as a moral obligation but
as a commercial necessity. Such schools cannot be worked at
a lower rate than between $5 and $10 a month for each pupil.
But this is more than very many Chinese of the most desirable
classes can afford. It follows, if such schools are to be estab-
lished the ratepayers must share the cost, and, as a matter of
fact, they halve it. The great majority of the ratepayers being
Chinese, this really means that those of them who have no
children at school pay in part for those who have.
It has been objected that though local taxes are fairly spent
on the education of Chinese connected with the Colony, others
should be carefully excluded who come to Hongkong for that
education alone, and without any intention of making a lengthy
Illus. 5.1 (Continued)
settlement. In theory this position is reasonable; in practice nothing short of a Commission upon the antecedents of each applicant could arrive at the truth. And so it is necessary to console ourselves with the facts, first, that Chinese boys utterly unconnected with the place would hardly find their way here ; and secondly, that Chinese who have received a good English education and been impressed with the stamp of a Hongkong school, are an asset sooner or later to be realised, whether they settle down in China as merchants, or pass examinations and become members of the Chinese Civil Service.
This, and the insatiable demand among the Chinese to attend English Schools, makes the way very clear. No senti-mental feeling, for instance, need warp the judgment in carrying out the statesman-like advice of the Indian Education Commission of 1882.
" We think it generally desirable that even in primary " schools fees should be raised as far as is consistent with the " spread of education. * * * The whole educational fund " is inadequate to the supply of schools for every group of " villages, and those who enjoy the advantage of a school should " contribute towards its cost, so as to promote the establishment " of similar institutions elsewhere. But we do not overlook the " wants of the struggling poor, or of exceptionally backward " races and tracts."*
Some exception from this doctrine of expediency must be made in the case of the poorest classes. In the first place, cost of travel has somewhat relaxed their tie with the mainland. And then, because they are less aware of the value of education, the more need is there to give it them. Their requirements are very modest.
Another axiom on which our educational policy rests is that Chinese are not educated unless they possess a reasonable facility with their own written language. This has been the better opinion among both English and Chinese authorities for many years. Attempts have been made to blur the argu-ment by references to the controversy over the value of Latin or Greek. The cases are not parallel. A Chinese engineer will find himself in difficulties if he cannot read a specifica-tion when ten miles inland, or a doctor who cannot write a prescription.
Conveniently for the Department it is the habit of the better-
class Chinese to give their sons a few years' Chinese education
(usually in their own villages) before they bring them into our
* Report of the Indian Education Commission, Section 194. (Calcutta, Government Press, 1883.)
Illus. 5.1 (Continued)
sphere. It is thus only necessary to hold Chinese entrance examinations in the English Schools, and to maintain and improve this, so to speak, pre-natal knowledge. The great number of small Vernacular Schools in Hongkong both Missionary and Private are supported, on the contrary, by ttie poorer part of the Urban population, who do not desire an English education for their sons. Thus, broadly speaking, Hongkong is concerned with the English education of the wealthier of the Urban Chinese, and the Vernacular education of the poorer. Further reference will be made to an educational ladder making it possible for the sons of the very poorest to obtain a free education through the English Schools into the University.
Some description has now been given of the two main classes of the population which lie receptive to the hand of the educationist, the Urban and the Rural.
Of these the Urban Division falls naturally into three divisions. First, the English and Indians who, while alien to the Colony, are native to the Empire and claim their rights as such ; second, the Chinese Urban population, which has claims based less on a moral right than urgent expediency ; third, the Portuguese, who hold a position between the first two, being neither altogether residents of the Colony nor altogether alien to it. The education of the Urban population is by now fairly established.
The Rural population proper, although possessing great
claims, has hitherto received but little attention.
The Boat population which is classed with it drifts along contentedly ignorant, and unaware whether it is a loser by its ignorance or not.
Before describing the schools which have been provided to meet the wants of these classes, it will be well to introduce the Education Department, the Education Ordinance, and the Grant Code, by means of which all the schools of the Colony are co-ordinated and directed.
THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.
The Head of the Education Department is the Director of Education. He is an officer of the Cadet Service of the Colony, from which the senior officials of the other Departments are also recruited. The appointment ranks as First Class. Under him are an Inspector of English Schools, an Inspector of Verna-cular Schools, and twro Chinese Sub-Inspectors, one for Hong-kong and one for the New Territories. The Inspectors are both English, and have hitherto been chosen from among the masters in Government Schools.
Illus. 5.1 (Continued)
367
The duties of the Director fall naturally within three divisions. He exercises a direct supervision over the Govern-ment Schools and Technical Institute, and is the official channel of communication between them and the Government. He exercises a control through the Education Ordinance over all the non-Government Schools. He recommends the Grants that should be paid to such of them as are included in the Grant list
The Government Schools are 15 in number. They have an average attendance of 2,274, with 30 Certificated and 130 Student and Passed Student Teachers and Pupil Teachers. It is convenient to state here that by far the greater part of the education of the English and Indian children of the Colony, and a great part of the education in English of the wealthier Chinese, is undertaken by the Government Schools.
Illus. 5.1 (Continued)
2. Plans for change.
Among the schemes to improve the educational system of Hong Kong in the period immediately following the enactment of the Education Ordinance, two relating to lan-guage in education merit special attention. One of these concerned the problem of finding and training local Chinese teachers of English. In a sense, this led to a very early form of 'earmarked provision' in tertiary education for what would later be known as 'manpower planning' considerations. The other involved Government attitudes towards the demand for an expansion of vernacular education, which, as the second extract below exemplifies, predated the May Fourth Movement. In Hong Kong Government eyes, vernacular educa-tion appeared to be specially connected with the 'very poorest class of people'.
Both proposals received the sanction of the Secretary of State for the Colonies.
(a) Sir Henry May to the Rt. Hon. Walter Long, M.P., Secretary of State for the Colonies, Despatch No. 181,6 June, 1917; in CO 129/442, p. 472 ff.
I have the honour to request your sanction for the following scheme, by which it is intended to make better provision for the supply of English-teaching Chinese masters.
2.
The matter has for some time been under the joint consideration of the Vice-Chancellor of the Hong Kong University and of the Director of Edu-cation, and the present proposals are the outcome.
3.
A similar conclusion has been reached by a Committee which I ap-pointed recently to consider the education given to Chinese boys in the light of criticisms made by Un-official Members when the Estimates were under consideration last year. The Committee's Report will be the subject of a separate despatch, but the following extract is here relevant:
The somewhat mechanical nature of the teaching given by the Chinese Masters and marked defects in their pronunciation and gen-eral education call for special treatment. We recommend that the Uni-versity be approached in order that a wide range of general studies may be available for Chinese who desire to become teachers of Eng-lish.
4.
The existing system was established in 1904. It provides a 3 years' course at Queen's College under the Normal Master, theoretic instruction being combined with actual teaching under supervision. The boys who compete for these pupil teacherships are of good stamp, and improvement is noticeable in the class of teachers who are being turned out by the Normal Class. These teachers after completing their 3 years' course must attend evening classes at the Technical Institute for at least another 3 years after which their education is considered complete. It is generally admitted that by these means a cheap and not inefficient type of Assistant master has been evolved. But there is also general agreement that the commercial interests of the Colony demand, even at some additional cost, an improvement in the education given to Chinese boys. This cannot be accomplished economically otherwise than by improving the education of the Chinese Masters.
5.
The following scheme has been drawn up by the Director of Education. It aims at sending 3 students (to be known as student teachers to distinguish them from the pupil teachers trained at Queen's College) annually to the University. The number of pupil teachers will be reduced from 20 to 15.
6.
The scheme is provisional. In 3 or 4 years it will be possible to decide whether the old or the new system, or a combination of both is best, and to act accordingly.
The scheme deals as a transitional measure with 3 young men who have already passed the University Matriculation Examination and have been serv-ing as pupil teachers. It is intended that they should enter the University next September and remain until they have, after 2 years, passed their Intermediate Arts Examination. Their services will soon be needed, so they cannot be spared to take the full course for a Degree.
7. In addition, it is proposed to send, in September 1918, and thereafter yearly, 3 students from Queen's College to the University. They will be se-lected by open competition from the boys who have passed their Matricula-tion Examination of the previous July. They will normally remain at the University for 4 years when they should take their degrees in Arts. Special lectures in Pedagogy and Normal Work will be provided; and in order to keep the students in touch with the schools, it is intended that they should teach therein for certain hours weekly, receiving in exchange salaries of $180 per annum. They would be bound to serve the Government as teachers for at least 2 years after taking their degree on an initial salary of $720 per annum (passed pupil teachers begin on $480. But there can be no finality about the scheme; for it may be found when the time comes that the proposed salary is no sufficient inducement. At any rate the scheme is certain to increase the costliness, and, it is hoped, the value of the Chinese Masters who teach English...
(b) 'Memorandum on Changes and Increases in the Estimates for 1920, signed by
E.A. Irving, Education Department, 7 March, 1919', in CO 129/454, p. 473 ff.
(p.
473) During the War little attempt or none has been made to adjust the expenditure on Education to meet the growing needs of the Colony. This is well recognized and I need only point to the fact that Expenditure on Educa-tion for the year 1917 was only 2.29% of the Expenditure of the Colony, the lowest ratio since 1904. Not only was the provision inadequate but, owing the the War, it was also impossible to acquire or maintain the Staff of English Teachers which the Estimates provided for ...
(p.
483-486) VIII FRESH EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS The Government Schools are almost exclusively for English and other 'foreign' children, for Chinese, and for Indians. English is taught in them all.
The Grant Schools serve Chinese, Eurasians, Portuguese, and any other nationalities that care to attend them. They mainly give instruction in English, but there are Vernacular Grant Schools where Chinese is the sole language.
The subsidized schools are Private Vernacular Schools in the New Territo-ries where an annual subsidy is given by the Government to each school.
Apart form these subsidized schools the only Vernacular schools which the Government aids are the 27 Grant Schools. They have an average atten-' dance of 1,600. The Government has since the Education Ordinance was passed, also inspected the numerous private schools of the Colony, which have greatly improved under the process.
There is, however, a strong demand among the Chinese for more Ver-nacular education for the very poorest class of people. I am of opinion that such provision cannot be conveniently made by the existing machinery. And new machinery must be sought.
It will not be desirable to create a large number of Government Vernacular schools. Such schools have been tried in times past, and have failed, for many reasons. A Government School has to be kept to a standard which need not be looked for in a Chinese controlled undertaking; and the cost on buildings, equipment and staff will be very great in proportion to the services rendered. Further European rigidity acts harshly on poor Chinese, and there are grave objections against employing persons of the stamp of teachers of such schools as Revenue collectors, while the fees collected would total a trifling sum.
The Grant Schools which are managed by the various Christian missions cannot, I think, be extended to cover the required schools. These Grant Schools receive a very small Grant from the Government ($3 to $5 per head per year).
They make both ends meet by charging very considerable fees. But the parents whom it is desired to aid are hardly in a position to pay any fees, perhaps 20 to 50 cents a month at the outside. The grants would have to be very largely increased, and even then there would be no security that the class of children whom it is intended to benefit, were really being benefited.
After careful consideration and consultation with the Secretary for Chinese Affairs and the Senior Chinese Member of the Council, I recommend that the body to be employed in developing the proposed new Vernacular Schools should be the Confucian Society, and that it should be aided in the following manner: The Confucian Society already manages about 20 schools. Owing the the smallness of the school fees charged, they are a great drain on the Society, which cannot extend its efforts very far on these terms, nor would the small grant offered to Vernacular Schools be a significant relief. I propose that a different system should be adopted. A lump sum of, say, $10,000 should be voted, and this should be disbursed to the Society at the end of the year upon the recommendation of the Director of Education that the schools are being properly conducted, and upon receipt of properly audited accounts showing that at least $20,000 has been expended by the Society on the schools. I am told by the Secretary for Chinese Affairs that there will be no difficulty in auditing the accounts. One of the advantages of this system will be that it will put the actual control of the schools into the hands of the Chinese of the District where they are situated, and will ensure local interest. In fact, the system approximates to that of the Tung Wah Branch Hospitals, which have been so successful.
3. Charles K. Edwards, 'Modern Education in China', Washington, Department of the Interior Bureau of Education, Bulletin 44 (1919), 40.
Western influence on education in and near China was certainly not monolithic. The extractfrom Edwards' article is only one samplefrom many possible of the rivalry, particu-larly keen in the post-First World War period, between British and American educational efforts.
The medical school of Hongkong University which is not on Chinese soil, charges very high fees and does not have a whole-time faculty, but is manned almost entirely by physicians whose chief concern is their private practice. These reasons, especially in view of the natural attitude of the Cantonese toward an institution wholly under British control and on British soil, make it extremely desirable to develop in Canton a medical school of the highest grade under joint missionary and Chinese auspices.
4. South China Morning Post, 2 December 1920, p. 3.
The news report, below, provides evidence about the attitudes and assumptions both of the leaders of the Tung Wah Hospital Group and of the Hong Kong Government.
Mr. Lee Wing-kwong, the Chairman of the Tung Wah Hospital Committee, said: Tour Excellency and gentlemen. Today is the day of the opening ceremony of the Chung Wah Shu Yuen, which has been well and truly constructed. The work has been expedited by the large grants generously made by the Government... The object of the rebuilding is to provide the free school with more accommodation for the poor Chinese boys of the Colony so that by improved education they may be enabled to earn their livelihood and avoid the consequences of poverty. Enquiries show that there is a large number of poor boys in the Colony who cannot afford an education. The free schools previously established by the Man Mo Temple and by the Confucian Society in the past ten years have been insufficient to meet this demand, and the attention of the Government has been repeatedly invited to this deficiency by the Chinese representatives on the Legislative Council. Realizing this, the professional and business communities have exerted their utmost efforts to develop the free schools so as to satisfy the desires of the Government in respect of education and to ensure that the greatest possible benefit should be derived from the kindness of the Kai Fongs in collecting funds for the purpose of education. The school has three storeys and has accommodation for several hundred students. In future, though we cannot give education to all poor boys of the Colony, we can admit several hundreds in addition to the old number.'
H.E. the Governor [Sir Reginald Edward Stubbs] replied: *Mr. Lee Wing-kwong and gentlemen. This is the second occasion within a few weeks on which I have had the privilege of being associated with an extension of the philanthropic activities of the Tung Wah Hospital Committee. On the previous occasion it was for the bodily needs of the Chinese Community that provision was being made; this time the provision is for their mental advantage. The Government has assisted in the building of the present school by means of a grant-in-aid and will always be ready to cooperate with the Chinese community in education work, but I am confident that the best result will be obtained if the matter is left as largely as possible in the hands of the Chinese community and their worthy representatives. In this connection, I should like to say a word of appreciation of the activities of the Confucian Society, which has now established twenty-four schools for the poorer classes, and is, I understand, preparing, with the assistance of a grant from the Government funds, to extend the scope of its work.
An interesting example of the cordial cooperation between the Tung Wah Hospital Committee and the Government may be seen in the school which I am opening today. The Committee has agreed to devote one floor of the building to the use of a normal school under the auspices of the Director of Education. This School will be of inestimable value in the training of teachers for vernacular schools.
One of the most difficult social problems of Hong Kong is the question of child labour. The employment of little children in work, frequently of too heavy a character for their years, and the continual appearance at the Police Courts of child hawkers, are features of the daily life of the Colony which no one can regard without regret. This employment of children is no doubt largely due to economic causes with which it is not easy to deal, but there is no doubt also that in many cases children are so employed because they cannot be left alone while their parents are at work. If the children can be sent to school this difficulty will be removed, and with the extension of facilities for free, or very cheap education, such as are pro-vided by the present school and of the Confucian Society's schools, to which I have already referred, I look forward with confidence to great improvement in this respect in the near future/
5. 'The Report of the Commission on the Industrial Employment of Children in Hong Kong, 1921' (Illus. 5.2).
As the concluding remarks of the preceding extract emphasize, the question of child labour was a pressing social problem in Hong Kong in this period. Largely because of the 'laissez-faire' attitudes of Hong Kong Government and the fact that substantial factory owners usually had either membership of or considerable influence on the Legislative Council, little had been done, even along the lines of British legislation, to regulate and control child labour. The extracts quoted below illustrate prevailing attitudes of the time to the problem in general. They also accentuate the difference between at least one missionary approach (Wells, in favour of compulsory education) and the Education Department (Irving's The first point to be considered is the money').
6. The British Consul-General at Canton, J.W. Jamieson, to Sir B. Alston, For-eign Office, 13 March 1922, in CO 129/477, p. 284.
This might be compared with Evidence 3,6,7,12, and 22 in this chapter to throw some light on Chinese and British attitudes capable of influencing educational provision.
.. . A barrister in Hong Kong, whose professional work has brought him into contact with these [subversive] elements ... stated that amongst the 'Hong Kong born', Eurasians and Chinese, there was growing up a feeling of resentment against the 'arrogance' of the British,24 and a deter-
24. See also Evidence 24 for a reference to arrogant attitudes by European teachers. There is also, perhaps, a trace of such an attitude in the following statement about an appointment to the Chair of Surgery at the University of Hong Kong made by Mr N. Teasedale Mackin-tosh, Registrar of the University, to the Colonial Secretary on 22 August 1922:'... In view of the fact that the Professor thus appointed will have to work in close cooperation with the authorities .at the Government Civil Hospital, it seems very desirable that the Professor appointed should be of British and not Oriental nationality/ (CO 129/475, p. 475). The reactions of the Chinese in Hong Kong to such attitudes varied between resentment (open or hidden) and obsequiousness.
raOCLAMATIOM
cR. E. STUBBS,
Governor.
Y His Excellency Sir RKIUNALD EDWARD STUBBS, Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Colony of Hongkong and its Dependencies and
Vice-Admiral of the same.
Whereas by the second section of the Commissioners Powers Ordinance, 1886, it is enacted that the Governor in Council shall have power to nominate and appoint Commissioners under the public seal for the purpose of instituting, making, and conducting any enquiry that may be deemed advisable and for reporting thereon:
And whereas the Governor-in-Council has deemed it advisable that an enquiry should be instituted, made, and conducted into the conditions of the industrial employment of children in Hongkong, and the desirability and feasibility of legislation for the regulation of such employment.
Now, I, Sir Reginald Edward Stubbs, Knight Commander of the Most distin-guished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Colony of Hongkong and its Dependencies, and Vice-Admiral of the same, with the advice and consent of the Executive Council, hereby appoint you:—
The Honourable Mr. Stewart Buckle Carne Ross. Mr. Chow Shon Son.
Mr. Li Ping.
Dr. Charles William MeKenuy, M.D., B.CII., B.A.O. Miss Ada Mary Pitts. The Rev. Herbert Richmond Wells.
to be Commissioners for the purpose of instituting, making, and conducting such enquiry:
And I do also appoint you, the said Mr. Stewart Buckle Carne Ross, to be Chairman of the said Commissioners:
And I do also order and direct that for all or any of the purposes of the said
enquiry four Commissioners inclusive of the Chairman shall be and constitute a
quorum:
And I do further, with the advice and consent of the Executive Council, order and direct that the said Commissioners shall have all the powers, rights, and privileges set out in the third section of the said Ordinance:
And I do further require you, the said Commissioners, to report to me your findings in the matter of the said enquiry and your recommendations, at as early a date as possible.
Given under my hand and the Public Seal of the Colony at Victoria, Hong-kong, this 24th day of March, 1921.
By Command,
3d. CLAUD SEVERN,
Colonial Secretary.
COD SAVE THE KING. Illus. 5.2 'The Report of the Commission on the Industrial Employment of, Chil-dren in Hong Kong, 1921'.
BOMHIONU, 24th October, 1921.
SIR,—We, the Undersigned, appointed by virtue of the above proclamation, have the honour to submit the results of our enquiries into the industrial employ-ment of children in Hongkong, and our recommendations for the regulation of such employment.
1. At the first meeting held on April (5th the following resolutions were adopted :—
(1)
That the meetings of the Commission bo held in private.
(2)
That before any factories were inspected, managers should be summoned to give evidence as to actual conditions of child labour in their factories
(3)
That a child should he understood to be a person below the age of (sixteen (16) years, according to the Chinese method of calculation. Reckoned according to the English system, this age.is equivalent to fourteen and a half (1-H) years. [ Throughout this report references to ages are, unless othei wise specified, to be taken as calculated on the Chinese system.]
(4)
That as the scope of our enquiry covered industrial and factory labour only, we were not expected to make any enquiry with regard either to agricultural or to domestic lal)Our
PART 1.
Child Labour in Factories.
2. At three subsequent meetings, evidence was taken from representatives of
the following factories :— The M. Y. San, Biscuit Factory,
Causeway Bay.
The Nan Yang Tobacco Company,
Causeway Bay.
The Orient Tobacco Factory,
Yaumati.
The Kwong Sang Hong Perfumery Factory,
Praya East, Wanchai.
The Kam Hing Knitting Factory,
Tsim Sha Tsui.
The Chinese Foreign Knitting Factory,
Yaumati,
The Tung Ah Knitting Factory,
609 Shanghai Street Yaumati.
The Lei B￡an Hing Knitting Factory,
ZS Sai Kuna Street, Tsim 8ha Tsm.
The Ching Wo Wa Yreong Knitting Factory,
482 Canton Road, Yaumati.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
The Kowloon Dock,
Mr. Chan Pak Pang, Sub-contractor for Ship-building.
The San Shing Lung Ginger Factory,
Mom] Kok Tsui.
3. Findings.—As a result of these interviews it was possible to form certain general conclusions with regard to the conditions of child labour in factories. :—
(1) The extent of the employment of children.—The number of children employed varied according to the nature of the industry. For instance, in sotne factories, they are largely used because in sucfi work as pack-ing their small and nimble fingers give them a decided advantage over adults. Not only is their out-put greater than that of adults, but when working on time rates, as they do in some factories, they receive smaller wages.
Apart from the question of economic advantage, children are also in some cases employed in factories as an act of grace. Some mothers who work in factories are said to be unable to find homes for their children during their hours of work, and are compelled to take them to the factories. In such cases odd-job work is given to tiie children, who work near to their mothers, and enter and leave the factories at the same hours.
Kmployment of this nature is therefore, more a result of social conditions than of factory necessities.
(2)
The necessity for child labour.—It issignificant that some of the witnesses, including some large employers of children, professed indifference to the presence of childreu in their factories, and stated that their removal would not cause them more than a temporary inconvenience. Many of them said that they continued to employ young children more in deference to the wishes of parents, than from any decided motive of economic advantage.
(3)
Hours of labour.—These appear to be universally excessive, and in few cases amounted to less than seventy (70) a week. One witness stated quite definitely that girls were working thirteen and three quarter (13|) hours per day for thirteen (13) days consecutively, after which they had a day's rest. In other words they were working 96 | hours and 82^ hours in alternate weeks.
With regard to overtime the position is obscure. That overtime is frequently worked in factories is undoubted, but some witnesses seemed desirous of conveying the impression that the attendance of children during these hours was optional. In theory this may be correct, but in practice the business necessities of the factories and the pressure of needy parents must he such as to leave the childreu little or no choice. Children are also regularly employed on evening and night shifts. The hours of children employed on night shifts are similar to those worked by them during the daytime, and arrangements are also in force by which they may be changed from one shift to another.
(4)
Wages.—The most important point in connection with the wages of children is that they are paid almost entirely by piece rates. The few exceptions to this rule that were found were the Docks, certain Glass Factories and the Orient Tobacco Manufactory where the children are paid by time rates. In the last named factory the few children employed were paid at a rate of twelve (12) cents for a working day of nine (9) hours. The piece rates paid vary in different factories, though by working longer hours a child appears to be able in oome caseo to earn ao much ao thirty (80) ceats a day. One giri .'*. found ^7no oppsapsd to make ao aiucbba Qlo a month.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
In view of the Chinese family system, whereby children generally hand over their earnings to their parents or guardians, the actual rates paid are not in themselves of great importance. It is when they, are considered in comparison with the wages paid to adults, and as a means of depressing the general standard of remuneration, that the rates become important. As the terms of reference do not include a con-sideration of adult wages, we do not propose to enter into detail on this question, except, to note that the low wages paid to children must depress the rates of wages paid to adults for similar work.
In some factories deductions are made from wages on account of bad conduct. Information on this question was not easy to obtain, and the general impression gained was that factory discipline was left largely in the hands of foremen and subordinates.
In the M. Y. San Biscuit Factory, where personal cleanliness in workers is most desirable, special regulations have been introduced to deal with bairdressing and manicuring.
Offences against these regulations are punishable according to a fixed schedule of fines. In view of the special circumstances of this factory the practice seems to be necessary and unobjectionable, but it should be subject to oversight by Inspectors.
(5) Apprenticeship.—In the course of the interviews few indications of any general system of apprenticeship were noticed. When children reach the age of sixteen (16) or thereabouts and the deftness which justified their original employment has begun to disappear, their places must be taken by those younger in years. Satisfactory evidence as to the fate of those displaced was difficult to obtain, and* the general conclusion drawn was that conditions in this respect varied in different factories. In some cases the older children may be discharged and in others they may be given different work in the same factory. Girls are not in the same position as boys, in view both of the possibility of marriage, and of the definite demand in some factories for female workers between the ages of sixteen (16) and twenty (20). Many girls are doubtless able to change from one factory to another with little or no inconvenience; but the same opportunities are not open to all, and no evidence was forthcoming of any general organisation for assisting the flow of labour from one industry to another. The difficulties in this connection are aggravated by the keen competition for places in factories. Many of them have waiting lists and it is not reasonable to suppose that workers of sixteen (16) or seventeen (17), whose health may have suffered from long hours of work in confined spaces, would be preferred for work which can only be satisfactorily done by able-bodied adults.
In the docks and ship-building yards boys are extensively employed, especially on the work of boiler chipping. One of the witnesses stated that boys were absolutely necessary tor this work as men were uncbie to enter the man-holes of the boilers. It was admitted that the wopk was hard and that many of the boys were not physically fitted for it, but at the same time those who were able to stand it were sometime able to qualify fpr more skilled employment.
(6) Factory Amenities.—No provision seems to have been made in factories for rest rooms, eating rooms, and wash houses, and the arrangements for medical attention in case of accidents are of the scantiest. In few cases were work people allowed to eat their midday meal in any part of the iactory building, and much inconvenience appears to be caused them in this respect. An exception to this state of things is Mr. Li Ping's factory at Shamshuipo, where a school is provided for small children during the working hours of their mothers,
Ilius. 5.2 (Continued)
4* The evidence obtained at the interviews mentioned in section 2 left no doubt ea to the necessity for legislation. It was felt that further interviews would only result in the accumulation of information of the same type, and that the next step should be to visit the factories, and test the accuracy of the knowledge already gained.
The following factories or works in the Causeway Hay district were visited by the Commission as a whole :—
The Nan Yang Tobacco Factory. The M. Y. San Glass Factory. The Kwong Sang Hong Glass Factory. The Hing Wah Paste Manufactory. The Kwong Kei Engineering Works. The Meh Wah Knitting and Dyeing Factory.
The following factories or works were also visited by individual members of
the Commission. The M. Y. San Hiscuit Factory, Wanchai. The Kwong Sang Hong Perfumery Factory, Wanchai. The Kowloon Docks. The Taikoo Docks. The Lei Man Hing Knitting Factory. The Tung Ah Knitting Factory, Yaumati. The Oi Kwan Cloth Factory, Shamshuipo.
5. As a result of these visits the following additional findings were made :—
(1)
That the information supplied to the Commission was not in all cases accurate, and that there had been a tendency of witnesses to under-estimate the number of children employed. In view of the casual nature of much of the child lnbour of the Colony it cannot be easy to obtain an accurate estimate of its extent.
(2)
That in glass factories the labour conditions were unsatisfactory. The work was done mostly by boys, whose daily tasks including three or four short intervals for meals, last from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m., and who are paid at the rate of $1.00 per head per month in addition to their food. The sanitary conditions of these factories are unhealthy, the temperature is raised by the heat of tbe furnaces to an injuriously high level, the air is vitiated by gases and filled with floating particles of glass, and the physique of the workers is con-sequently poor. In explanation of these conditions it is stated that the boys are apprentices, who we only paid a nominal wage as they have the privilege of learning a trade, and that they are provided with foee board and lodging. It is difficult to believe that the boys in tkese factories are in reality apprentices, for they greatly outnumbered the men, who appeared rather to fill the role of foremen wor&ors. From the general appearance of the boys it seemed unlikely that they would all live long enough or be healthy enough to take men's work. The' provision of lodging in and around the factory precincts cannot be considered as other than a doubtful advantage. whea all allowances ape made, we are of opinion that the labour conditions in thepe
ffcetorieo are thoroughly bad.
(3) That in engineering works the bo). employed fall into two classes.—
Those boys employed in the shops are genuine apprentices, whf serve for definite periods, and who have every chance of becoiniut skilled workmen. All are directly employed by the Companies, are og good physique and work reasonable hours. Labour of this kind is noo very objectionable.
In the rougher and unskilled classes of work, the conditions are esftlsaly different, for the labour is not employed directly by the O&mpaBtes, but is provided by a system of sub-contracting. At the
lllus. 5.2 (Continued)
interview mentioned in Action 3 (5) it was stated that boys were absolutely necessary for much of this unskilled labour. In the work of boilerchipping, for example, we were given to understand that boiler man-holes were so small that they could only be entered by boys.
After seeing the work in progress we are not convinced of the validity of this argument. We have reason to believe that in British ship-buildiug yards adults are employed on this work, and we can see no reason other than cheapness why boys should be employed in Hongkong. It is only fair to say that the physique of the boys seen by some of us was good, but on the other hand such work could not be done by weaklings, and in the words of one of the employers—" It either
makes them, or breaks them." It is probable that the law of the survival of the fittest operates with unusual severity in this work, but owing to the almost inexhaustible supply of labour the necessary standard of physical fitnes> can be maintained. Tlie strain on the undeveloped boy under sixteen (l(i) (English 14J) is too great, and it should not be continued. Chinese boys at sixteen (16) years of age are generally small.
(4) That the system of sub-contracting was prevaleut in all classes o unskilled labour.
The system appears to be a potent influence in depressing the standard of living, for the sub-con tract or is usually concerned with both work and labour, and is compelled to make up by reductions in wages the cuts in prices due to successive transferences of the contract. Every addition to thechaiu of sub-contractors tends to react unfavourably on the earnings of labour. While the system continues, the Colony's labour cannot be expected to be in a satisfactory condition, but as it affects adults even more widely than children, we would exceed the terms of our reference if we made any recommendations in regard to it.
(5) That many children now employed in factories have been brought into the Colony from the country specially for work of this kind.
In the course of the inspections this question was repeatedly asked, and in many cases it was found that the children had been; brought from the country by some lelative, who was theu working in the factory, and that they had been in the Colony for periods varying from a few months to a few years. This indicates the existence of considerable financial inducements to workers in Hongkong to find posts for their relatives from the interior of China, and is of importance, in regard to the popular argument that any measure of social reform in Hongkong would only result in an influx of needy pappfe from the country eager to take advantage of the new conditions; If social reform meant money for nothing, some such result wonid probably take place ; but it the right kind of economic inducement is held out to the people in the interior, a more desirable type oi lsbtfuror could be secured.
6* As a result of the interviews with factory managers, and ffhe visits to faa&oriee previously described, we are of opinion that legislation should b^ introduc-ed to ghro effect to the following recommendations:—
(1)
That all eniplcneM of chiidicti be compelled to tegtster them. This iccomuicndalion is meant to apply not only to factories and workshop* but when practicable to einplo)cis of casual labour.
(i)
That no child under the ago of cloven (II) (Chinese) jrnin bcemplo)rd in any factory, or in any Conn of casual labour, and that in any case arising under this legislation, the onus of proving the age of the child be upon the employer.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
Qne of the Commissioners, the Kev. Mr. Wells, wishes the age to be thirteen (13) and not eleven (11) as above, and wishes the age of labonr to be iucreased by one year every succeeding year, or as soon a9 possible, until child labour is entirely abolished.
This recommendation does not apply to children engaged in
genuine domestic work, but it does apply to children employed in
carrying paraphernalia in Chinese processions.
(3)
That the hours- of work for children do not exceed fifty-four (54) per week, that children be prohibited from working at any time more than five (5) hours consecutively, and that they be ensured one day's rest in every seven (7) days.
(4)
That children be not employed between the hours of 7 p.m. and 6 a.m. No question of overtime or night shifts should be allowed to override this ruling, and the rulings laid down in sub-section (3).
We think that half time work should be encouraged and that children should be educated during the other half time if possible. Even if children have not been working during the day they should not be employed between the hours o￡ 7 p.m. and 6 a.m. The intermit-tent sleep, wnich is the usual lot of workers on night shifts, is especially harmful to the physique of children.
One of the Commissioners, Mr. Chow Shou SOD, is of the opinion that children over fourteen (14) should be permitted to work between the hours of 7 p.m. and 9 p.m. provided that they have done no work during the day.
(5)
That for the reasons given in Section 5 (2) children be not employed in glass factories.
(6)
That for the reasons given in Section 5 (3) children be not employed in engineering works on the work of boiler chipping.
One of the Commissioners, Mr. Chow Shou Son, thinks that boys over fourteen (14) should be permitted to work at boiler chipping if their physical condition satisfies the Inspectors.
(7)
That children be not employed in dangerous trades.
(8)
That employers be compelled to provide accommodation, which can be used by workers during meal hours, and as a rest house for children taken to factories by their mothers; and further that they be compelled to provide suitable dressings andfirst aid appliances, which can be used in cases of accident, and to equip their factories with approved sanitary conveniences.
(9)
That Inspectors be appointed for all classes of child labour, as the regulations proposed are obviously dependent on a system of inspection. Our intention is to avoid introducing a series of factory regulations which will merely lead on the one hand to "squeeze," aud on the other to Police Court prosecutions; and it is, therefore, essential that Inspectors should be persons of standing. Unless knowledge, tact and sympathy are employed in the work of inspection, the system of regulation may degenerate into a number of irritating prosecutions that wUl do little good, and that will tend to the estrangement of the various Bections of the community. We are convinced that the larger and more reputable factory -owners will do their best to make effective any suggestions which the Government may make ; and the efforts of the Inspectors should be directed to co-operating with chem in making the regulations known in the lesser factories. Only by educative co-
operation can the best results be obtained from these proposals.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
We think that the tanks of the Inspectors should include Chinese representatives as well as British, women as well as men, and voluntary workers as well as Government servants. We do not propose to draw up the details of this organisation, as we are not sufficiently well in-formed of the work of the various Government Departments, and suggest therefore, that this is a matter with which the Government is more fitted to deal.
7.
We feel that an explanation is needed of the serious responsibility that we have-taken upon ourselves in recommending for children, a scale of hours of labour considerably in excess of that of male adult workers in Europe. Our proposals are indeed a compromise between the present " laissez-faire" attitude, and the more drastic method of removing children immediately from the factories. Of these two extremes the former is unthinkable, and we are not prepared to recommend the latter without also recommending some extensive scheme of social reform. As the data necessary for such a scheme could only be obtained after a searching enquiry into industrial conditions as a whole and into the financial resources of the Colon)7, a more moderate proposal of regulation appears to be preferable as a temporary measure. It will be pointed out that although the proposals reduce the working hours of children by periods varying from 25% to 40 ^ on the old levels, yet as children are paid by piece rates they will suffer a corresponding reduction in wages. It will also be stated that the children them-selves like the work, and that to reduce their hours of labour will cause unnecessary hardship in families dependent on their earnings. All these arguments can be paralleled from the history of the Factory Acts controversy in England in the forties of last century, and the reply is that the question is essentially moral and not only economic. A child is not a correct judge of its own welfare.
8.
The feasibility of compulsory education has been examined, but owing to the difference of opinion on the question it has not been found possible to come to any unanimous conclusion. A memorandum on compulsory education was submitted by the Rev. H. R. Wells and at a meeting held on May 23rd the Director of Education stated the difficulties of carrying out these suggestions— such as those of providing accommodation, of registering children, and of arranging for the staffing and inspection of the schools. 1 hese difficulties are real, but at the same time the opinion may be hazarded that they are inherent in every scheme of compulsory education, and that as they have been overcome in other countries, they could, if the community had the will to do so, be overcome in Hongkong. Mr. Wells' memorandum and the statement of the Director of Education are printed in Appendix 2.
We do not agree with the frequently expressed opinion that an extension of educational facilities in Hongkong would be followed by a rush of people from the interior to take advantage of them. It is a common experience of countries that have adopted compulsory education that opposition may be expected from those for whose benefit the scheme is intended. There is no recson to suppose that the experience of Hongkong would be different, and on this ground Gbe tendency would rather be towards an exodus of present inhabitants thau to an* influx of newcomers, and it would have the effect of stopping the immigrotsoQ tff child labourers which is very large.
One'of the Commissioners Mr. Chow Shou'Son however, does not share this view, as evidenced by the attached extracts from a Memorandum by him which forms Appendix 4.
In view of the fact that many children must earn their living by manual labour, it is suggested that steps be taken to provide an educatiou for them suited to their special needs.
Such an education would comprise training in manual work in addition to at least a " primary education." The dignity of manual labour should be emphasized and the bearing of intellect on manual work explained.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued.)
,., }$ *% $$W9 P.f IWA w^-hogs tfot eAuXl$hoJ2* will repfcpe $at of children in fy^tfea* so ^hat. the Government should be e^kea either to undertake. the necessary i&duptrial training or to encourage private enterprise in this direction. Meanwhile schools for " he￡f timers," such as those which have been successfully started in
IncUia, might be tried.
In Shanghai a Chinese lady has had good results with such methods. In hes "Industrial*Home" the children do four (4) hours manual work and four (4) hourr atu4j, while the remainder of the day io devoted to recreation.
Such or similar methods might be attempted in Hongkong.
PART II.
Children Employed in Casual Labour.
9. The employment of children outside factories in casual and unskilled work, and especially in burden bearing, is the most difficult problem which w& have had to face. Reliable information is extremely difficult to procure, the work is done by the poorest members of the community, who have often, no fixed place of abode, and the place of work i<* constantly being changed. The eyes of European inhabitants are naturally drawn to those who carry bricks and other materials to the Peak and. Hill Districts, but the same kind ol labour is carried on all over, the Colony. Children are freely employed in this work ; and investigation has shown that even those as young as seven (7) or eight (8) years are not exempted.* The physical condition of many of the women who have been long engaged in this work is even worse than that of the childreu, and judging from this we are driven to the conclusion that no form of work exercises such a degrading effect upon the workers as labour of this kind. We are unable to suggest any regula-tions which will suffice to alter this state of things, and in our opinion the red) solution of the question lies in Mechanical Transport. As far aa the Peak is concerned the approaching completion of the motor roaQ should bring this m&thod of traii5}>ort within the range of possibility. A recent answer to a question in the' Legislative Council indicates that considerable economy in the speed and oast of the transport of 'all articles to the Peak could be effected by the introduction of motor transport, and that the present system of manual transport 'in slowy
Cumbrous and wasteful.
10. As the development indicated in the last section will take time, we propose as a temporary measure, that all building and engineering contrasto enfearod in&ote* the Colony should contain clauses prohibiting the employment of cfcaldrR^ wdcr the asp b￡< thirteen (18) years, and regulating the weights carried by ohibh Tqestjem We dc not pretend,that this proposal covers the whole ground, OP tfcsS itvX7ill pravide the remedy needed; bpt we think that it will do good in oois g CDatffcctors to realise their reaponsi bill ties to labour, in fostering co-opaso^C^ tDtneos* them aad Inopsctors, and in gathering information about a section >o5ifei)a community of whom little'is known. As a scale oi weigbto suteoMe- fa?- cfcMdspn over the age of thirteen (13) and below that of sixteen (16), it is suggested that tttosaty (30) cat&ea is a suitable miakamo, and thefc no load ahou^l euces&ibrfey (fifty <2afcGC3o. For pGTpccso of comparison it may hs ￡d&d ifeat cas orasdl fcricbdo roughly equivalent to 8$ catties, so that the number of bricko thoiV&isbrMfcny carry should vary from eight to sixteen (8 to 16). Between these limits tha
Toad would be adjusted to the a.v and physical fitness of the child. It is most desirable that this standard should not be. interpreted too literally. The tigiwec are not in any sense final, and are only meant to afford a rough indication of the carrying capacity of children of different ages What must at all costs be avoided is the harrying of labourers by petty officials. These suggestions can only result in good Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
11. ka brief our recommendation* are as follows :—
(1)
That all employers of children be compelled to register them, and that for this purpose a child be considered as a person below the age of sixteen (T6) years (Chinese), and that when possible this should be applied to employers of casual labour.
(2)
That no child under the age of eleven (11) be employed in any factory, nor should any child under thirteen (13) be employed in any form of casual labour, and that the onus of proving the age of a child be on the employer. One of the Commissioners Rev. Mr. Wells is not in entire agreement, (vide Section 6 (2) )
(b*) That the hours of work for children do not exceed fifty-four (54) per week ; that children do not at any time work more than five (5) hours consecutively ; that they be ensured one day's rest in every seven (7) days ; and that where and when possible some form of half time labour be encouraged.
(4)
That children be not employed during the hours between 7 p.m. and 6 a.m. One of the Commissioner Mr. Chow Shou Son is not in entire agreement, (vide Section G (I) ).
(5)
That children be not employed in "glass factories.
(6)
That children be not employed in the work of boiler chipping. One of the Commissioners Mr. Chow Shou Son is not in entire agreement, (vide Section 6 (G) ).
(7)
That children be not employed in dangerous trades.
(8)
The employers be compelled to provide rest rooms and suitable sanitary conveniences for workers and to make due provision for medical aid in case of accidents.
(9)
That Inspectors be appointed for all classes of child labour.
(10)
That in building and engineering contract* articles be inserted regulating the weights to be carried by children.
We do not intend that the above series of recommendations be regarded as hard and fast rules which admit of no deviation. They represent no more than a beginning, of which the ultimate object must be the entire removal of children rfom factories. The speed with which this object is accomplished will depend upon the spirit in which factory legislation, if approved, is administered.
12.
In conclusion we wish to express our best thanks to all who have helped us in our investigations.
13.
The following four (4) Appendices are provided:—
‧(1) Minutes of evidence taken on April 18th and 20th and on &foy 4t&, Statement of workinar conditions in the Kowloon Dock.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
(2)
Memorandum on compulsory education by Rev. H. R. Wells, and statement by the Director of Education, at the meeting on May 23rd.
(4)
Extract from a, Memorandum by Mr. ('how Shou Son.
(3) (A.) Memorandum by Mr. Li Ping on the casual employment of
children.
(B.) Memorandum by Rev. H. R. Wells on the same subject.
We have the honour to he,
Sir,
Your obedient servants,
S. H. 0. ROSS,
CHOW SHOU SON, LI PIN(i,
0. W. M( KENNY,
A. M. PITTS,
H. R. WELLS.
THE HONOURABLE, THK COLONIAL SKORKTAIM, HONUKONG.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
Appendix 1.
Evidence taken on 13th and 20th . \prif, 192J.
Tsu Hoo CHUKN, ASST. SKOKKTAIIY OF M.Y. SAN'S UISCITIT FACTORY.
We employ about (>00 hands altogether. We have ,\Q hoys and 20 girls. Most of these aie from 14 to 1(5; we do not take children under 14. During week-days men start at 7 a.m.--hoys work from 9-12.30 and 1.80-5. Girls are day workers and get from 10 cents to 15 cents a day. Boys are paid from $2 to $10 a month, and also get hoard and lodging. The girls are engaged in pasting labels and picking out bad biscuits, while the bo) s clean up the work rooms. The pay of a woman is from 15 cents to 30 cents a day. We have no apprentices. Children do not work on Sundays Children do not work overtime. We have a private school for the boys, in which the hours are front 7 to \) in the evening, except on Saturday ami Sunday. Children of the employees are also allowed to attend this school. It would not affect us much if children were not allowed to work. We keep a register of workers. We have 3 female ami 2 male o\erseers to look after the women and girls. Smoking and spitting in the factory is punishable by a tine of 1 cent for each otfencc. After three fines a person is liable to be dismissed. We have a manicuring department, and if any girl does not go there and is found with dirty nails she is liable to a fine of 1 cent. All men workers have quarters at the factory.
FUNIS WA I SINC MANAGER, KWONG SAN<; Horn; PKRFUMKKY FACTOR*.
We employ about .H00 people, all of whom are women. We only employ girls over 17—we employ no children in the scent factory. In our glass factory we employ :--
2 boys of 13 years )
" " , * " 100 men an* employed.
10 ,, ,, la . 1 t J X . . 1. . )
These boys are apprentices—the) learn for three years—they get $1 a month as well as board and lodging—they are glass blowers. Men are paid from $8 to $18 with food and lodging. Boys work 10 hours a day, and also on Sundays. Women in the scent factory work from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.
MR. SKII.INC, MANACKK, ORIENT TOHACCO FACTORY- Mom; KOK TSUI.
We employ irom 500 to GOO hands, of whom 24 are children. There are 18 girls and (\ boys. The ages are as follows:—
I of 12 years II from 12 to 14 years 14 . 14 to 1() .
The children are day workers, they earn about 12 cents a day. They work 9 hours a day for (i days a week. The children are the children of adults in our factory. I prefer children as we can train them. There is no overtime and no Sunday work. They work* from 7-12 and 1-5. Most of our old hands came to us as girls and were trained by us. We have wages lists and could send re-turns. The pay of an adult is from 50 ceDts to $1 a day.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
CHAN PUI SHING, MANAGPB,* NAN YANG TOBACCO FACTORY.
We have two factories, (1) 199 Warn Tsoi &oad, (2) Caroline Road, So,Kun Po. We employ about 244 female children, but no male children. The ages are as follows:—
4 girls of 11 years
12 . . 12 .
37 . . 13 .
79 ., . 14 .
112 . . 15 .
They work from 8 to 9 hours a day. From 7-12 and 1-4 or 5 o'clock. From 20 to 30 cents a dav is the average pay of both a child and an adult. The children are employed in packing. Every loth day and 30th is a holiday. Apart from applying for holidays they work for 7 days a week. Children work the same hour*, as adu'ts. Overtime can be worked fiom 7-9 p.m. From 4-8 cents i> the overtime pay. There is plenty of labour. Wage sheets are kept and signed by the girls, deductions are recorded, and the wage sheets are oprn to inspection. There i> a waiting lUt of over a hundie.1. We will not take children under 10 years cf age.
CHENG HING YIN—MAVAGKU OF KAM HING KNITTING FACTORY. We employ 110 girl* and 48 boys, and 900 adults. The ages are as follows:—
21 girls from 11 to 12 39 . . 12 to 14 50 ,%, . 14 to 16
The children work from 6.45 a.m to 11.30 a.m. and 12 *ioon to 6.15 p.m. and on night work from 6.45 p.m. to 9.30 p.m. 'I hey lave every other Sunday off Children and adults work the -an p hours. Girks do liiiht work. Girls can make about 40 cents a day if ov< r 16, and under 16 about 20 cents. There is no night w rk on Wednesday or Sunday, or from 4th to 7th moon. Wages are paid twice monthly. Children are paid direct. Women have their midday meals in the factory.
Evidence taken at Meeting on 4th May, 1921.
CHAN KWOK WA YEUNG OR THE CHINESE FOREIGN KNITTING FACTORY AT 484, CANTON ROAD, YAUMATI. CHEUNG TAJ MING : SECRETARY.
We employ about two hundred hands with, about half a dozen children. They come with their mothers and do odd jobs. They are paid by the job and work six days a week. They work for eleven and a half hours a d.iy. There is no night work or work on Sunday. Our work would not be hindered if we did not employ children.
CHAN PAK PANG, KOWLOON DOCK, SUB-CONTRACTOR FOR SHIPBUILDING.
I employ from 100 to 30<. men, depending on the amount of work. I employ from 50 to 60 women coolies--! employ boys for chip in.', sometimes I employ from 40 to 50 boys, the youngest of whom are about eleven years, and the rest eleven years and upwards. They work from 7-12 and 1-5, and the wages are from 30 to 40 cents a dav. l^ouble overtime is paid for night work and Sunday work. The night shift lasts for 12 hours and wages are paid at double rates. Bo\. are also employed at painting, carpentering, boiler-making, and as copper-smith**. 1 here are 33 under 16 and 147 over 16 workiDg as copper-smiths. have no apprentices.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
SPBM A KH.TT(TKfc ^ACTcK^, 6 §H&WG08&2 BURBOT, SfoTO Ki>0T2 Yfl&f, Ko CSIUIG TOKO: MANAGER.
We employ 220 persons : About 35 males, 190 women, and 12 girls, all over 12 years, make up that total. We employ no boys. They work from 6.30-12 and 1-6. We do night work four or five times a week. We sometimes work on Sundays. Thg women and children are paid by the piece. Women get about 40 cents a day. It would not affect our work if we had no children ; they come with their mothers and beg for work. We pay half overtime for night work to persons *]paid by the day. I think 80 p.c. would like to work on Sunday. About 50 p.c.
would like to do night work. No one is forced to do night work.
Li MAN HIN<; KWOK, SAIKUNG STKKIOT, YAUMATI, KNITTING FACI'ORY FOR HOSIKUV. SUJ YAM WING : ASSISTANT MANAORR.
We employ about 300 persons—51 men, 280 women, and 27 children of whom none are under 13 years of age. They work from 6-12 and 1-7. There is no Sunday work and no niirht work. The girls mike eardboa'd boxes, do knitting and other light work. All hands work the same hours. We pay by the piece and by the day. The pay is from 15 cents per day upwards. The children g.t from 15 cents to 30 cents a d.iy. The children are brought by the mothers. It would not affect us if there were no children working.
SAN SUING LUNG GINGER FACTORY, 255 RROLAMATION STRKKT, MONGKOK. Li SHAI WING: MANAGER.
We employ 32 men and 60 women. We have no girls under 18 or 19 years of age. The hours are from 6-12 and 1-6. There is very seldom any ni Illus. 5-2 (Continued)
STATElflENT OF WORKING CONDITIONS IN THE KOWLOON DOCK.
Regulations of working hours and, wages of employees of Mr. Chan Pah Pang, sub-contractor for shipbuilding in the Kowloon Dock.
Translation.
Girl workers—none.
Boy workers—about 30 or 40.
Ages of boy workers—about 3 to 5 boys are over 13 years of age.
No girls and boys working together.
1.
Working hours for boys—each day from 7 a.m. to 12 noon, and from 1 p.m. to 5 p.m.—9 hours in all.
2.
The wages for boys are about 30 cents a day, which are paid to them directly.
3.
The boys work under the professional men-workers, looking after the instruments and the burning of the rivets.
4.
The boys are paid according to the number of days they work.
5.
The wages for bov workers are about 30 cents a day, and for men workers $2.60 to $2.70 a day.
6.
Men and boy workers all work for the same number of hours.
7.
Boys working at night and on Sundays are paid double pay.
8.
Boys working on Saturdays are paid a full day's wage.
9.
Boys working over the limit of 9 hours are paid an extra wage in pro-portion to the extra hours they work.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
Appendix 2.
Tlie, Ed-i^ation of Chinese Children in Hongkong.
In this Colony there is an Education Department well fitted to deal with the education of all classes of children. Schools are provided for many classes, and though from time to time complaints may have arisen about individual schools, the general work of the schools under Government direction is satisfactory.
From the reports of the Director of Education it is evident that during the past decade there has been very considerable advance in many directions, and a larger number of children have come under the scheme of education arranged for by the Department.
All schools in Victoria and Kowloon are registered, and thus it- becomes in-creasingly possible for the Director of Education to control this branch of the Colony's industry.
The Committee of enquirv into the economic resources of the Colony does not seem to have taken up the theory that child life is potentially one of the principal economic resources. An educated people will progress, an uneducated people will deteriorate.
It is \cry evident that there is not yet adequate provision for the education of all children, because children swarm in our streets, e\en at times when they ought to be in school, and the question of the education of these children is one that is constantly in the minds of some people
An examination into the state of affairs in lugard to the children, reveals the
fact that child labour is being exploited far beyond what should be allowed in n
modern city. In factory and workshop, business house and office, on steamers aud
launches, in domestic service and such casual labour as burden bearing, there are
multitudes of children employed, and besides these many may be seen playing in
the streets, often gambling, or goin. about in bands, birdnestiug, or insect hunting,
or for other purposes, and incidentally many of them are probably developing
into the future criminal classes, and the inmates of our prisons. Already they .have a keen eye for the police and the detective.
It is therefore, evident that the Education Department, should be further ex-tended, and larger powers should be given to the Director of Education to compel the attendance of children in schools provided under Government supervision. At the discretion of the Director of Education, perhaps in conjunction with the Secretary for Chinese Affairs, certain children in special cases might be exempted from full attendance at school, but, in such cases, guarantees should be secured that, such children are not allowed to work so many hours a day that they would be too tired to benefit from classes of instruction, which they should be compelled to attend.
If all children were immediately withdrawn from their present employment, it might be a hardship to the employers, the childreu and their parents, but these cases could be met by the permission of the Director of Education.
A question that will naturally arise is that of the cost of such education to the Colony, and that no doubt is an important one, but the financial problem is not impossible of solution. In all probability the result to the Colony in its developed resources would far outweigh the small amount spent on this most important project.
The Education Department at present spends large sums on English and Anglo-Chinese education, but these would not enter, at least for the preseut, into the calculation, as the education required now is elementary Chinese education. It appears from the report for 1918 that the amount spent per head on this tyne of education was less than ten dollars, and if the number of childreu of school age
Illus, 5.2 (Continued)
who are not yet in school should fee ategtJ*?ACK), the cost of educating them on the same basis would be not more ihaniJSSfyWO per annum, including presumably the cost of supervision.
In order to Taking the number of scholars as 30,000, and the average number of scholars taught by one teacher as thirty, it would mean that one thousand teachers must be found, This would involve a great task in the way of training, before the teachers were up to what may be regarded as Government standards, but with patience and perseverance the task could be accomplished* The work need not wait on this account, as teachers could be trained as they are at present, while doing their work, perl taps in evening classes.
Compulsory education is not yet un fait accompli in Canton or elsewhere in China, but it is in the minds of many, and Hongkong cannot afford to be behind-hand in such a matter. It has been pointed out that this Colony has been a pioneer in education, and it should retain that position, being a leader rather than a follower. As mentioned above, there is a strong body of people in Canton and in the province generally whose aim is to introduce compulsory education. They see that a country cannot advance much without education, and so are awake to the need for this.
The present is a very good time for starting such a system in this Colony many Chinese are ready for such a movement, and the Census has just been taken and from the results of that, it will be possible to get a fairly accurate estimate of the number of children of school age in the Colony. It would be easy to fix awes for the purpose of education as all Chinese ages are changed at? the Chinese New Year. Chinese S-16 would approximate to English (M4 years of age.
It would be possible to inform all people coming to the Colony hereafter that they must make provision for the education of their children. There might be difficulties in the matter, but they would not be unsurmountable.
By means of such a system, children who were bad could be tried out in different schools, and dealt with so that they might not be a menace to the peace of the Colony.
It is not likely that many children would be brought to the Colony in order to secure the benefit of such primary education as is mentioned here, and the condition that might be imposed on new arrivals, to provide for the education of their Children, would be an effective barrier.
7 hese remarks are offered as a preliminary statement for discussion in con-nection with the problems ofthe child life of Hongkong.
(Sgd.) H. R. WELLS.
Hongkong, 10th May, 1921.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
Meeting ,hdd on the SteJ TJ%, 1921.
THE HOW. MBL.US. A.JJIVIEO, Bi&aaTQR OF*SD&CATION,
ATTENDED AND GAVK EVIDENCE.
Mr. Ipiving: I am not quite clear as to what particular .point I am asked to make a statement on. The most striking point of this document is the suggestion that we should have compulsory education here Well, Sir, if it were suggested to make education here compulsory to-morrow or next year the following main points -iTQuld have to be considered. In the first place we should have to know how roa^y children were not in attendance at our schools, which information we shall get as soon as the census report is published. It has been suggested by Mr. Wells, I do not know whether his guess is correct or not, that the number of school-less children is 30,000, and if we take this high figure it will mean that we shall have to have something like 1,000 more schools, allowing 30 children to a school.
The first point to be considered is the money. I have been working at some figures as to what the cost of the Government's assistance should be to schools— I say ' assistance', lor I recognise that a certain amount should under existing cir-cumstances be raised from fees, but if education is going to be made- compulsory, I do not see how fees can be charged. However, taking my figure oi. the basis of children subscribing something, I would put the cost of teaching these 30,000 children at $10.00 each a year, and that to begin with is $300,000 a year. The next point to be considered is the question of housing these schools. It would need 1,000 flats. That would trench somewhat severely on the housing accom-modation of the Colony, and this seems to me in the present shortage a very serious point. However, that is not a point in which I as Director of Education, am very much interested. Now, to come to more technical points, is the question of staff. At present 1 find the chief obstacle to vernacular education i* the shortage of teachers. I have long impressed this view on the Government, and that is why two normal schools were opened, one for girls, which I hope by the eud of next year will be turning out something like 40 teachers annually. Th&t however, would be quite insufficient to deal with a sudden demand for a thousand teachers, and we should have to depend upon teachers without any experience or training whatever, many of whom would no doubt be worse than the worst in the existing schools, and this is saying a great deal. I do say that unless you can supply teachers reasonably trained, the pupils iu your new schools will profit very litfole. A further point is the question of inspection, and this is a very serious point indeed. I have at present two excellent inspectors, one happens to be a Chinese, a graduate of Cambridge, but English or Chinese, men with the necessary qualifica-tions are not easy to get. They must have a good education, a knowledge of the theory of teaching, and before they are of any particular use, a very thorough knowledge of Hongkong Schools ; I mean they must know what can be expected of such schools, which they can only learn by visiting hundreds of them, and they must, personally know the actual teachers in the various schools. Before I heard anything about this Commission I wrote to Government that we were in a precarious ot&te, because.I had only two Inspectors to cope with the great increase both here and in the Hew Territories, and in the event of a breakdown of either of them we should be in great difficulties, and I hijve asked the Government to provide nest year for one additional man or possibly two. But my real difficulty is to get such men, atsd if it was a question of doubling or trebling the work iu Hongkong (and compulsory education would mean more than doubling and trebling), I have simply not got.the m$n md I do,not know where I voixld get them. These are the proDGipal dicqulties I should have to foce when introducing compulsory educotitpnin Hongkong. In the first place there is the money to be provided, in the mmmS place Inere is a lack of schools, teachers cad inspectors.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
Investigation with regard to Child Labour,
In my recent investigations with regard to Child Labour, I observed that the work taken up by Children in the Colony, on the whole, is quite moderate, except that it appears to me, the work in glass factories is not at all good for children. In manufacturing glass, children are engaged in doing the work of " blowing," which is very unsuitable for thenij especially as they are working almost the whole. day long. They work in front of a hot fire; and so have not enough fresh air. Such work is very unhygienic for children and naturally affects their health. Therefore, the employment of children in this kind of work should be strictly prohibited.
As stated in my previous report, the number of children engaged in canning* building materials is approximately 1,000 of whom the majority, a^ I have observed, carry over-loads. This over-load work can easily be ^topped, but it is not advisable to stop children entirely from doing the work of carrying. When any contractor enters into a contract with the Public Works Department and the War Department, or with the Civil Engineers, Architects and Surveyors in private practice on certain building con'struction, it should be mentioned in such contract that the Contractor should not employ any children under 11 years* of age (Chinese). Similarly, it should be mentioned in permits issued by the Building Authority and the Secretary for Chinese Affairs; but, children whose ages are over 11 (Chinese) should be allowed to carry loads in accordance with the following s-cale:
Children 11 years of age can carry loads of not more than 22 catties.
14-Lr) ,, . . . ,, . 9 40 .
In speaking of the introduction of compulsory Education iu the Colony, I do appreciate the ideas of Rev. Mr. Wells. Personally I would say it is an excellent scheme, but I am afraid it cannot be so easily adopted, because first of all it requires a tremendous sum of money to run the scheme, and secondly it is rather difficult to find sufficient school accommodation. 1 would therefore propose to open free night schools. At present I can think of 7 day schools which are quite suitable for this purpose.
(1)
The Saiyingpun School, (2) (Jueen's College, (3) Belilios School
(4)
Ellis Kadoorie School, (5) Wanchai School, (6) Yaumati School, and (7) Belilios Reformatory.
Both Chinese and English to he taught for 3 hours nightly from (> p.m. to \) p.m. except Sunday night. Children between 8 and 11 years of age are admitted to Chinese classes and those between 12 and 15 are admitted to English classes. These schools can accommodate about 2,41)0 children. For every 40, 1 teacher is required or 60 teachers altogether, of whom 30 are engaged to teach English and 30 to teach Chinese.
The expenditure for these night schools is roughly estimated as follows:—
30 teachers (teaching Chinese), salary per year at $300— $ 9,000.
30 . . English), . . . 400— 12,000.
14 servants ... . ,, . 150— 2,100.
Books, etc. for 2,400 students ... . 2— 4,800.
Electric light expenses per year for 7 schools . 150— 1,050.
Sundry expenses . . 7 . . 120— 840.
Roughly say $30,000. $29,790.
The Government ts requested to contribute this amount.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
These Schools are to be looked after by the Committee of this Commission under the control of the Director of Education. Meantime, I suggest that these be started first, whereas Compulsory Education is to be carefully considered later.
It is said that there are about 30,000 children who need education, and if this number is correct and Compulsory Education is introduced, a sum of about two million dollars is needed.
To pay rent for 1 flat per year $360.00 To pay salary for 1 teacher per year 360.00 To pay salary for 1 servant per year 120.00 To pay books, etc. for 30 students at $1 30.00 To pay for Boarding for 30 students at $36 1,080.00
$1,950.00 1,000 schools
Per year $1,950,000.00
When Compulsory Education i* actually introduced we must also pay for the boarding of the children, bec.uise they cannot spare time to work and earn their living. Even if this item, the amount to be paid for their boarding is not included, a sum of at least $870,000 a year would be required.
(Sgd.) LI PING.
27th May, 1921.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
Appendix 3 (B).
A member of the Commission Rev. Mr. Wells made a visit of inspection to one of the halts where people carrying loads to the Peak were resting.
He reports as follows : —
"Having heard that ehildron were carrying loads to the Peak, I made a visit to one of their Imlts. A number o￡ women and children were sitting down, and my attention was first called to a boy who seemed to be very weak, it* not ill. He was eating a cake, but seemed to have little appetite for it, the time was about
9.30 a.m. His mother was sitting beside him, evidently somewhat anxious about hfom, 1 asked his age, and she said about nine or ten (Chinese reckoning). On being asked which burden the boy was carrying, she pointed to many loads and said " that one,'* adding " there are many more, ask them.'' I looked about and saw a very small boy, he was eight year> of age, (English reckoning, say about (>.^ years), he was with his mother, and she said that he must work, or he would not have fond to eat. The mother was a widow and came to Hongkong to get work, and finding that the boy could also get work, had set him to earn what he coukl. He had two loads of twenty two catties (29 lbs. each), these loads he took one by one, carrying each a short distance, and then returning for the other. Further enquiry elicited information to the effect that he had his breakfast at 5 a.m., and began to carry at a place near the central market, on the sea front, at six a.m., and had got so far, his work would be finished at about five p.m. ‧ He could earn eight cents for a day's work, carrying fifty eight pounds (forty four catties) weight of coal to the Penk. It was stated that he could only work about ten days a month, and that women could only work aboufe^ twenty days. The child earned eight cents a day, or eighty cents a month, but he had to get some lunch, and it wus said that this might cost three cents a day, so that his clear earn-ings would only be about fifty cents a morkth. This sum seems hardly sufficient to pay for medicine for him, if, as sterns probable, he should have occasional sicknesses. It seems to be a wicked way to use the time and energy of such a child.
Other boys .and girls of ten, eleven and twelve years of age were in the neigh-bourhood at work, it was said that a twelve year old girl could earn twelve cents a day. A general conversation with men and women was held, and it transpired that they get eighteen cents for a load of one hundred catties {133 lbs.), and that a man could carry two load's, and a women about 150 catties, the man would earn thirty-six (36) cents a day, aud a women in good health about twenty-seven (27) cents.
The problem of the formulation of a plan for the protection of these children is a difficult one to solve. It seems as it the small load system might be stopped at the starting point, contractors and employers should not. be allowed to make up child burdens. The lowest load might be fixed at fifty catties, and they might be informed that only strong children of full age should be allowed to carry the materials or goods. If necessary the system might be attacked gradually, and the weight and age limit be reached by slower steps.
If young children can earn so little, they would be much better employed in schools where they could learn a little about books, and what they .teach, and if it were possible to give them some industrial .training as part of their school train-ing so much the better. It might be possible to teach a little about the cultivation of flowers and plants, the manufacture of small toys, or even elementary work that would be useful for their future life as artisans, and even perhaps enable thera to earn a few cents a day after a short time."
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
Appendix 4.
General.
I should like, in conclusion, to make a few general observations in elaboration of those contained in the draft report. At the outset, let me say that 1 atri as anxious as auyone else in this Colony to see the hard lot of some of the poor children in this Colony improved, and I am sure that all the Chinese here will do everything possible towards that end. But we must take facts as they exist, and
not allow our sentiments to affect our considered judgement. Owing to its proximity to the Kwongtung Province, there is a constant iiow of Chinese of all classes into this Colony, most of whom come here in order to lind work to keep themselves from starvation. The present conditions of the two Ivwongs further aggravates the situation. The children who are earning wages are essential to the "scheme of things" in the daily life of the poor, aud without them it would mean so much less income to feed the family, (me would like to cut down as much as possible the working hours of these children, but, unfortunately there is a limit beyond which one cannot go without doing more harm than good. As a rule these children do piece-work : they are paid according to the amount of hours of work they put iu. If, for instance, you halve their working hours of, say, 70 hours a week, you would reduce their income by **()% ; and wiierc there is more than one child earning such wages it may mean the loss of the wherewithal to pay rent.
There has been a great deal of talk about ,4 sweated labour" in Hongkong. Except a few isolated cases which one may come across here and there, the work which the children in the Colony are doing cannot be so described. The work is hard no doubt, but where it constitutes the alternative to starvation, it should be allowed, if greater harm is not to be wrought. The struggle for existence in China is intense, and the children who work m the interior are mostly worse oh! than those earning wages in Hongkong. That is why the Commission do not recommend the total prohibition of child labour, but rather suggest its regulation.
This brings me to the questiou of compulsory education in the Colony. The idea is very attractive, but a little consideration will show that it cannot be worked. Situated, geographically, as Hongkong is, with its door ever open to the teeming millions trom China, the problem ot accommodation alone will be found to be most difficult of solution. Then there would be the question of expanse which would be enormous, and the difficulty of training the large number of teachers that would be required. Eveci it all these difficulties could be surmounted, then there would be the question of feeding and clothing the thousands of children who would have to give up their work, upon which they at present depend for their miiuten-ance in order to attend school. 1 should like, however, to see every child receive some education, if possible ; but such should be achieved not by legislation but by voluntary attendance at Continuation Classes iu the evening or on Sundays.
(Signed) CHOW SHOU SON.
Illus. 5.2 (Continued)
mination to wrest out of their hands the control of the colony, whose material prosperity was mainly built up by Chinese labour and capital.
7. Sir Reginald Edward Stubbs to the Colonial Office, 16 September 1922, in CO 129/478, pp. 764 ff.
A crisis was developing in the relationships between the Chinese and British in Hong Kong. While on leave, Stubbs, formerly an official at the Colonial Office, attempted to analyze and explain the situation to the Colonial Office, with perhaps the merest sugges-tion of panic in his depressive diagnosis. A few years later, during the next major crisis which affected Sino-British relations, the 1925-26 Strike and Boycott, an official minuted in London, 'I am afraid that Sir E. Stubbs is becoming rather over-excited in his sugges-tions and it is not to be wondered at/
Oxford 16.9.22 My dear Grindle,
Yours of 15.9. The situation is much worse than I anticipated. I thought that the system which I adumbrated in my despatch would be accepted by the Chinese though I knew they wouldn't like it.25 It now appears that they are going to oppose it. This means that whatever we do will be futile and, which is far more serious, it means that the Chinese are for the first time setting themselves against the Government. That is the beginning of the end. I told you the other day that I believed we should hold Hong Kong for another fifty years. I put it now at twenty at the most. ... They (the Chinese in Hong Kong) will tend more and more to associate themselves with China rather than with England (the tendency exists already) and it is by no means impossible that we shall find ourselves up against a passive resistance to all Government measures and a boycott, more or less open, of British trade. ... We can rely on nobody except the half-castes and even they will throw in their lot with the Chinese if they think they will be the winning side.
8. Claude Severn, the Officer Administering Government (OAG), to the Secre-tary of State for the Colonies, 15 November 1922, in CO 129/476, p. 371.
25. Stubbs is here referring to a proposal to control the custom of 'domestic servitude' (especially the mui-tsai). See also the Chronicle for 1878 in Chapter 4 for reference to an earlier controversy about efforts to illegalize the widespread practice of 'adopting' young girls and using therri as domestic servants. At this particular juncture, Stubbs is clearly very doubtful about retaining the support of the Hong Kong Chinese, especially the wealthy class.
Severn's despatch offers an explanation of Hong Kong's dilatory and very modest factory legislation against child labour. In the context of the Seamen's Strike of 1922 and the controversy over 'mui-tsai', the Government was reluctant to interfere further with the interests of influential Chinese.
... It has not been considered possible to fix a greater age than that of 10 years as the minimum age for the admission of children into factories, 12 years as the minimum for the carrying of coal and heavy loads, and 15 years in the case of dangerous trades...
... but I consider that this small interference with the industrial life of the Chinese is all that can be safely accomplished at present.
9. Sir William Brunyate, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Hong Kong, to the Colonial Secretary, 30 June, 1923, in CO 129/480, pp. 292-93.
Readers may wish to query the Vice-Chancellor's assumptions.
.. . From various points of view, which I need not discuss in detail, I should be glad if a larger proportion of our staff had been at Oxford or Cambridge...
. . .We shall probably be wanting a Professor of Education in the middle of next year, and there it may be felt that some of the Provincial Universities are in closer touch with practical teaching. I speak with hesitation, but it is probably well that we should leave to training colleges of another type the methods incident to what I may call mass production.
10. The Introductory' section of the Education Department's Annual Report, 1924.
E.A. Irving was permitted to retire from government service on the ground of ill-health on the expiration of his vacation leave on 23 July 1924, having served as Inspector of Schools and then Director of Education for over 20 years and having failed in repeated requests for promotion. This Report was not, therefore, his responsibility, but that of his successor.
Though the Report is clearer about policy, the basic priorities do not seem to have changed much, with pride of place being given to British children and the problem of providing schooling for the Chinese declared to be 'different' and determined by their numbers.
The number and circumstances of British children in this distant Colony make it at once feasible and desirable to provide them all with an education in Government schools as nearly as possible equal and similar to what they could find at home, until such age as they are called upon
397
either to go home, or to seek employment locally. It is natural that parents should take an early opportunity of sending, or better still, of taking, their children to be educated in their own country; and consequently inevitable that most of our British children should be leaving at an early age. At the end of last year there were 415 British children at school here, of whom only 101, or 24.3% were over 12 years old. It is true that an increasing number of British children are finding local employment direct from school, but it is a matter of regret that of those who remain in the Colony, only a small proportion stay at school after their services have once become of marketable value. This is bad for the pupils and discouraging for the staff.
Other communities for which separate provision for education is needed are the Portuguese and the Indian. The children of the former usually attend one or other of the Roman Catholic schools which are privately managed but assisted with Government Grants. The Indian children usually attend the Indian School at Sookunpo which was erected by the late Sir Ellis Kadoorie, and handed over by him to be managed by the Government.
The problem of Chinese children is different. Their numbers are so large that it is impossible for the Government to take charge of the education of all. The principle adopted is to endeavour to set a good standard of work in Government Schools while giving assistance by grants or subsidies to all private schools which reach the required modest standard of efficiency.
Our task then, as regards Government Schools, is to obtain an adequate and qualified staff and a suitable curriculum; as regards private schools, to give such assistance as we may without unduly limiting their freedom
.. . In a colony like this, where the demand for education exceeds the supply, there is a temptation for teachers and managers to try to take an excessive number of pupils. For classes, the maximum number allowed is 30 in Government Schools, 40 in Grant Schools and 50 in other schools, and it is hoped that with increased facilities there will be no further excuse for exceeding those numbers ...
11. Extracts from Executive Council Minutes, 1926, in CO 131/69.
The following extracts demonstrate that the Hong Kong Government felt sufficiently threatened by the 1925-26 Strike and Boycott to impose censorship on the English lan-guage press in Hong Kong and to make use of a particular Chinese language newspaper to present its side. Thus a political crisis had led the Government to intervene in one major channel of informal education, the press, in order to control and produce propaganda.
Thursday, 25th May
2969/1911: Council, Sir H.E. Pollock dissenting, advised that the censor-ship of the European press should discontinue, and that Mr. Halifax should send for the editors and express the hope that they would avail themselves of his advice if doubtful either as to the authenticity of news or the desirability of comment when important political considerations were involved...
Thursday, 8th July
21 in 1301/1925: .. . As regards the Kung Sheung Yat Po and the propa-ganda done by that paper and by the publication of hand bills, His Excel-lency stated that he considered the cost well worth while; it was generally agreed that a vernacular paper subsidized by Government was necessary under present conditions and that the arrangements for the Kung Sheung Yat Po should continue ...
12. A disagreement between the Hong Kong Government and the British Gov-ernment.
The three brief extracts below may help to show how decisions were sometimes made. They also emphasize the tensions between the ethnic groups in Hong Kong. Moreover, the reference to Malayan experience shows that the Colonial Office was capable, at times, of taking the broader view, informed by relevant comparisons.
(a)
Governor Stubbs to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, telegram, 11 Sep-tember 1925, in CO 129/489, p. 179.
In view of the fact that the school attendance has dropped by 50% and the strictest economy is essential, I propose the abolish the post of senior Inspector of vernacular schools and I recommend that Cavalier26 should be pensioned forthwith.
(b)
Colonial Office minute, J. Paskin, 16 September 1925, in CO 129/489, p. 179.
This seems to me to be a very serious proposal and not one lightly to be approved. Mr. Cavalier is the only European inspector of Chinese schools in the Colony, the other three inspectors being Chinese.
Experience in Malaya has proved the wisdom of maintaining a strict watch over the teaching in such schools, and I should have thought that in
26. A.R. Cavalier, a respected linguist, had joined the staff of Queen's College in 1914. He volunteered for war service in Europe and later became Inspector of Vernacular Schools.
399
these days of anti-British propaganda, the wise policy would be to in-
crease rather than to abolish the European inspectorate in Hong Kong ...
[Referring to earlier comments by Cavalier about the vernacular schools] If the state of the Vernacular schools even approaches to his account of it (and even if Mr. Cavalier's statements are discounted to a very considerable extent, it seems difficult to believe that there is not some truth in them) then the need for suitable European inspectors seems all the greater...
(c) Draft reply from Secretary of State for the Colonies to Stubbs, 17 September 1925, CO 129/489, p. 183.
.. . I am not convinced that it would be wise to abolish the only European inspector of vernacular schools .. . I should have thought European inspectorate essential to prevent spread of anti-British teaching. I am not disposed to approve your proposal until your successor has had opportunity of forming opinion.
13. Hong Kong Hansard, 1925 Session, p. 94, Legislative Council speech of Chow Shou-son on the Government Estimates, 22 October 1925.
The similarity of the wording here with Robert Kotewall's paper on the Strike and Boycott (see Evidence 14 below) is marked, indicating how closely Robert Kotewall and Chow Shou-son collaborated together. It is interesting that both Chow Shou-son and Robert Kotewall promote neo-Confucianism as a safeguard against the threat of Leftist ideas in education.
.. . I understand that while I was in England the Hon. Mr. R.H. Kote-wall took up with the Government the question of improving our system of vernacular education; and it is a great satisfaction to me to see that provision has been made in these estimates for the establishment of a Vernacular Middle School at Saiyingpun. It is the opinion of many Chi-nese who have made some study of the subject, that there should be a graduated system of schools reaching up from the vernacular school to the Chinese middle school, and on to an enlarged and improved depart-ment of Chinese study in the University. In such a system great stress should, we think, be laid on the ethics of Confucianism which are in China, the greatest force for good. Any money which the Government may spend in this direction would in our opinion be money well spent, and also constitute social insurance of the best kind.
14. The memorandum by R.H. Kotewall on the 1925 Strike and Boycott, dated 24 October 1925, and published along with a Report by Sir Reginald Stubbs in a Colonial Office paper, February 1026, in CO 129/489, pp. 423 ff.
PARTI
THE STRIKE: ITS CAUSES AND EFFECTS
Causes
2. The strike was undoubtedly caused by a Bolshevist intrigue in Can-ton, conducted with the avowed object of destroying the economic life of Hong Kong ...
Commencement
5. The trouble commenced in the various Government and grant-aided schools in the Colony. The industrial strike began with the abandonment of the s.s. 'Sun Tai' by her Chinese crew on 19th June, and on the same day the crews of the 'Kushan' and 'Fatshan' came out in Hong Kong...
PART II
GOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER MEASURES
Counter-Propaganda
59. But the best medium of propaganda has been the newspaper. At the beginning of July, as the only Chinese newspaper then publishing was unable or unwilling to print our news, we created our own newspaper. This was the 'Kung Sheung Yat Po' (the Industrial and Commercial Daily News), which was started largely through the instrumentality of Mr. H.K. Hung, a local solicitor, who got one of the oldest and ablest Chinese editors to write the leading articles. This editor, Mr. Pun Wai-chau, unfor-tunately, has since died .. . Though at first the 'Kung Sheung' was only a small single sheet, less than half the size of the large double sheet of the /Wah Kiu Yat Po', it has done good from the very day of its issue. The publication of a paper independent and fearless of Bolshevism, which daily attacked those doctrines, inspired a little courage in the 'Wah Kiu'. The other newspapers which had suspended publication also recom-menced with a daily issue of one sheet. Today, because of the example of the 'Kung Sheung' all the Chinese newspapers are anti-Red, but we are carefully watching at least two of them to see that they are not converted by Russian money. This shows that the rapid spread of feeling which can so easily be induced in a mob, can also be caused in the daily journals which affect and reflect mob psychology.
61. -We must all agree that there is great need for continued propaganda. Our enemy has been, and will be, increasing his attacks upon us, and his attempts to buy over some of our Chinese newspapers. We must keep on educating the public, and see that our case continues to be presented to them in the manner we want, whether we have actual civil disturbance at the time or not. With this object Mr. Chow Shou-son and I, with other Chinese merchants, have recently turned the TCung Sheung Yat Po' into a permanent newspaper, and are running at a considerable loss, even with the Government grant of $500 per month, as a large number of copies have been sent abroad gratis.
PART III
REFLECTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Politics in Schools
86.
One of the most serious and significant features of the recent distur-bance is the part played by schoolboys and students... It is very necessary to learn from these events how to prevent the corruption of schoolboys in future, and particularly their attempts to interfere in politics. It was the students who started the strike in Hong Kong, and it was the students who created the shooting incident at Shameen as in Shanghai. The Hong Kong schoolboys were moved to their turbulent behaviour by some stu-dents from Shanghai. These students were said to have put up at the offices of the notorious 'Chung Kwok San Man Po', and they had a clear 10 days to do all the mischief they could. So successful were their methods that practically all the schoolboys were more or less contaminated. When the trouble began, the University was fortunately in vacation, but it must be said to their credit that those students who were in residence in the hostels behaved well. The same praise could be accorded to St. Paul's and St. Stephen's Girls' Schools which were the last of the schools to close, all their girls showing pluck in attending regularly in spite of personal threats at a time when many boys skulked off. When St. Paul's Girls' School was closed, some of the senior girls offered their services, through me, to the Postmaster-General, and although their offer was thankfully declined on account of their delicate physique they were useful to our Propaganda Bureau, in which they were employed for about a month in work requir-ing copying in large Chinese character.
87.
Now let us try to trace the cause or causes of the present state of affairs. From the first year of the Chinese Republic schoolboys and students in China have been arrogating to themselves the right to assist in the government of the country, and they have been encouraged by persons who had their own ends to serve. In so far as our own schools are concerned, there can be no doubt that to a very large extent the ground had been prepared for them for this trouble, as during the last two years or so very undesirable literature has been introduced into the schools,
particularly the vernacular boy-schools, and some of the Chinese teachers had not been altogether innocent in this respect.
88.
Recommendations: Obviously the first remedy is an increased watch-fulness in the schools. Special care should be exercised in the supervision of the vernacular schools in particular, for these can the more easily become breeding grounds for sedition. The teachers should be carefully chosen and supervised for this reason.
89.
It should be impossible for propaganda to get so long a start before it comes to the knowledge of those in charge. In future, as soon as a political or industrial trouble is brewing in the Colony, the school authorities should do everything possible to prevent their boys participating in the agitation. If necessary, the schools might be closed at once.
90.
To my mind we should get rid of the root of the evil. The Chinese education in Hong Kong does not seem to be all that it should be. The teaching of Confucian ethics is more and more neglected, while too much attention is being paid to the materialistic side of life. It is the opinion of many Chinese who have made a study of the subject, that there should be a graduated system of schools reaching up from the vernacular school to the Chinese middle school, and on to an enlarged and improved department or school of Chinese studies in the University. In such a system great stress should be laid on the ethics of Confucianism which is, in China, probably the best antidote to the pernicious doctrines of Bolshevism, and is certainly the most powerful conservative force, and the greatest influence for good. At present the only Chinese middle school is the Confucian Middle School established two years ago by Mr. Fung Ping Shan, Mr. Li Yik-mui, and others; and its object, like that of all the most famous English Public Schools, is not so much to impart miscellaneous information, as to train the characters of the scholars and thus fit them for social life and leadership. About eight months ago I suggested to the Director of Education and the Secretary for Chinese Affairs, and, in May last, to His Excellency the Governor, that either the Belilios Public School (when and if vacated for larger premises) or the present Saiyingpun School should be set aside for the purpose of a Central Chinese school by the government; and I am glad to see that provision has been made in the Estimates for 1926 for the establishment of such a school at Saiyingpun. This action of the Government has given great satisfaction to those who have taken an interest in local education, for they believe that money spent on the development of the conservative ideas of the Chinese race in the minds of the young will be money well spent, and also constitutes social insurance of the best kind.27
27. This is the section of the memorandum that bears the closest resemblance to Chow Shou-son's Legislative Council speech (Evidence 13 above).
Finally, I suggest that careful instruction in Confucianism and its application to the problems of modern civic conditions should be given in all the schools where there are Chinese students...
Prospects for Fascist Organization
It is interesting to note that proposals were made to me from no fewer than three separate parties to form an organization here on the Italian model. The men who advocated this belong mostly to the class of the old Chinese literati, and it is an interesting proof of the growth of a civic interest and self-reliance formerly lacking among the Chinese of this class. Beyond consulting Mr. Chow Shou-son and reporting the proposals to the Secretary for Chinese Affairs and the Assistant Colonial Secretary, I took no action. In fact, I did not give encouragement to the proposal because such a movement would not have commended itself to the Home Govern-ment, and also because I knew, from the history of this organization in Italy, that if once it is allowed to get out of hand it becomes a danger to the community. In any case it would be difficult to find men of the necessary type to become leaders of the movement here.
15. From an Act of the National Government of China, April 1929, cited in T.C. Cheng, The Education of Overseas Chinese...', p. 294.
As mentioned above, teaching of the Three Principles of the People was actually
banned in Singapore. The wariness with which the K.M.T. was treated in Hong Kong may
be gauged from the Chronicle, above. In the eyes of the Hong Kong Government, the
reference to 'the cause of world peace and brotherhood' made by this Act was more than
counterbalanced by the 'end that national independence may be attained'.
Based upon the Three Principles of the People {San Min Chu D, educa-tion in the Republic of China shall aim to enrich the life of the people, to foster the existence of society, to extend the means of livelihood, and to maintain the continuity of the race, to the end that national independence may be attained, exercise of political rights may be made universal, condi-tions of livelihood may be developed, and, in doing so, the cause of world peace and brotherhood may be advanced.
16. Concerning The Report on Education in Hong Kong, 1935', by Mr E. Burney, M.C.,H.M.I.
The following extracts offer evidence about the provenance of the Burney visit to and report on Hong Kong, Burney's own ideas and the rationale behind that report, and at least some local and British opinions about the report.
(a) Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to Sir William Peel, Governor of Hong Kong, Confidential, 11 July 1934, in CO 129/549/19.
.. . In his despatch Confidential (2) of the 15th November, 1927, Mr. Ormsby-Gore [then Secretary of State for the Colonies] referred to the fact that the post of Director of Education was held by a Cadet officer and not by a professional educationist as one of the deterrent influences to which the difficulty of recruiting suitable men for the Education Service in Hongkong could be attributed. He stated that this fact lowered the pres-tige of the whole educational service as that of the Medical Service would be lowered if it were subordinated to a Cadet Officer under the title of Director of Medical and Sanitary Services; and he expressed the opinion that on the occurrence of a vacancy the post should be filled by an educa-tionist and if possible from the existing staff of the Department...
.. . It seems to me particularly important at this time of change and development in China that the sincerity of the British Government in its desire for educational progress should be demonstrated, as far as may be practicable, by the provision of an educational system in Hong Kong which will bear comparison with any within reach of Chinese elsewhere. This must necessarily mean that the Director of Education in the Colony shall be equipped with professional experience and technique to advise how best to apply in Hong Kong the continual improvements which have been and are being made in School organization, methods of teaching, etc. It cannot be expected that a Cadet officer can equal a professional educa-tionist in Up-to-date knowledge of this specialist character.
My conclusion is that it is desirable to explore fully the question of the educational system in Hong Kong with a view to determining the organi-zation best calculated to secure on the one hand the advantage of main-taining a forward policy in the schools, and of avoiding on the other hand the risks that arise from an incomplete understanding on the part of the Director of Education of the political or social reactions likely to be pro-duced amongst the Chinese community.
I am advised that for this purpose it would be desirable, with the cooperation of the Board of Education,28 to invite some well-qualified person who is experienced in educational organization in this country and overseas to visit Hong Kong and to make a report on the whole question.. ,29
28.
Cunhffe-Lister is here referring to the British civil service department responsible for education, i.e., the predecessor of today's Department of Education and Science.
29.
A few months later, Cunhffe-Lister wrote again to the Governor in the following terms:
I have etc. to inform you that I have recently been considering the desirability of securing the services of some suitably qualified educational authority to visit Hong Kong with a view to reporting on the question of the present educational
(b) From the text of the Report on Education in Hong Kong, 1935 published on behalf of the Government of Hong Kong by the Crown Agents for the Colonies ...
What kind of education are the schools giving? Taking the younger children first, there were recently in Government and 'Grant-in-Aid' schools combined, 1,367 children under eleven years of age. At the same time, returns which were unavoidably incomplete showed that more than 23,000 such children were in private vernacular schools. In other words, it is in these schools that the vast majority of the children receive their primary education. Further, about two-thirds of the 23,000 were in non-subsidized schools, which presumably had not yet managed to attain the very modest level of efficiency that qualifies for a subsidy. In such schools there is no guarantee that education means anything better than spending long hours in learning to recognize and write a number of the Chinese characters, and in memorizing, without any attention whatever to their meaning, texts from the Chinese classics.30 These activities prepared the pupils in the age-old Chinese system of education which prevailed till the revolution of 1912, for the composition of the '8-legged essay7. This essay and calligraphy were the sole subjects of the famous examinations which admitted successful candidates to the Civil Service. Old-fashioned Chinese teachers, uprooted from Canton by revolutionary reforms, found refuge . . . after 1913 in Hong Kong, and there resumed the only means of earning a living which they understood. Some of their schools still continue. Though in many of the private vernacular schools the children are now taught to read with more or less sensible books, and learn something of the elements of arithmetic and perhaps a little geography, there is still far too much stress laid on sheer memorizing and too little attempt made to arouse in the children's minds an intelligent interest in their work. This is particularly
system and organization in the Colony and making such recommendations as he may consider desirable to ensure that educational policy may be directed in the best interests of the community.
After consultation with the Board of Education, I have selected for this duty Mr. E. Burney, M.C., one of H.M.'s Inspectors of Schools in this country...
Two days earlier, Arthur Mayhew in the Colonial Office minuted: 'At the last meeting
of the Advisory Committee on Education Miss Burstall drew attention to the Hong Kong
Education Report and, more particularly, to the fact that there was no woman on the local
Board of Education. She was told in accordance with permission that you had given me that
an officer of the Board of Education was going out to take a survey.' Cunliffe-Lister's despatch of 6 December and Mayhew's minute of 4 December 1934 may be found in CO 129/549/19.
30. A time-honoured complaint! See, for example, the views of the Rev. Samuel Brown (Chapter 1, Evidence 4), Dr Frederick Stewart (Chapter 1, Evidence 9), Sir Richard MacDon-nell (Chapter 1, Evidence 11), and the Rev. Wilhelm Lobscheid (Chapter 3, Evidence 6(a)).
noticeable in the teaching of hygiene: the children commit to memory rules of health which are most flagrantly violated by the environment of their studies.31 Moreover, school life for these children consists of study only, unrelieved by those activities which nowadays are held to constitute an indispensable part of primary education. Indeed, in few, if any, of the schools would such activities be possible — there is no room for them. Further, the age range of a class is often far too wide; the writer found a girl of twelve and a young man of twenty in one class. Finally, the premises of these schools are usually inadequate and sometimes abominable...
Education in Hong Kong has been dominated by the converging influence of two factors. First, there is the very old tradition in China that success in life and social dignity belong to those whose tool is the pen. Admission to this privileged class has always been by examination. Sec-ond, there has been and is a large demand, from merchant firms, shipping offices, warehouses, and banks, for clerks .. . The clerks must know Eng-lish. Hence the schools have been obliged not merely to teach English, but to make it a real second language for their pupils, aiming at a standard considerably higher than that attained at home32 in any foreign language. This demand comes from parents and pupils quite as much as from employers, and is nowadays by no means confined to boys. Girls, even if they are not going to work, in teaching or in offices, where English is required, regard a knowledge of our language as a social asset and a matrimonial qualification.33 It is one of the marks of their modernity, like unbound feet, proficiency in swimming, and the use of lip-stick. Also it opens theic eager ears to Western culture as voiced by Hollywood .. .
In two schools visited Chinese boys were being taught, not without some detail, about the religious wars in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. Asked whether he thought that this information was of the slightest importance to the boys, the teacher in one school said, 'No, but there will probably be a question on it.'
(c) Letter by a writer with an undecipherable signature34 from the Colonial Office to Edmund Burney, 7 May 1935, in CO 129/553/12.
31.
Note, however, Professor Lancelot Forster's observations about the teaching of hygiene at Ping Shan in Evidence 22 below.
32.
The allusion to Britain as Tiome' by Burney is quite understandable, since he was literaUy a short-term visitor to Hong Kong. The same attitude prevailed in the thinking of most Europeans in Hong Kong and influenced ideas about local education, possibly with less justification.
33.
The obvious comparison is with Stewart's comments on the effects of English teaching upon girls — see, for example, Chapter 4, Evidence 1(c) and Chapter 3, Evidence 14.
34.
The author of this letter is probably G.E.J. Gent, a senior official at the Colonial Office.
I wonder whether you saw when you were in Hongkong the enclosed History? As it is probable that I be shall out of England when the Hong Kong Government's views on your report are considered by the Commit-tee I am drawing your attention to the book because it seems to me to indicate forcibly some of the defects that you noted in the present school cert, course in Hong Kong. Something will obviously have to be done to insist on your plan for simplification receiving attention, whatever the Hong Kong Education Department may say.
In conversation with Handyside I gathered that he could see no faults in the book or in the certificate course for which it is intended. When I referred to the difficulty of the language and of much of the subject matter he said that no attempt had been made to simplify either because school certificate candidates usually stayed in schools till the age of 19 or 20. When I asked him to what course of study the book was supposed to be introductory I could get no clear answer. But apparently the book covers only a portion of one of the alternative history courses for the school certificate! When I pointed out that only 8 out of 145 pages were devoted to the history of the world since 1870, while 24 pages were devoted to the history of Greece and Rome he said that special local conditions justified more attention being paid to ancient civilizations than to current events. I could not get from him a clear idea of these local conditions to which he referred. Apparently no provision is made in the course for Civics or for any . . . [study] of the administrative machinery in Hong Kong. It is not considered desirable to interest Hong Kong students too much in political and administrative questions! I could get no clear ideas of the place occupied by Empire history in the course as a whole .. .
(d) Lancelot Forster, Professor of Education, University of Hong Kong, to Arthur Mayhew, Colonial Office, 4 October, 1935.
I have now had an opportunity of going quickly over Burney7 s Report and also of hearing one or two comments. It is fair and just and the criticisms in it are very temperate in tone and not quite so severe as I had expected, but they prove all the more effective because of that. The head-master of Queen's agrees with almost every thing that is said, but com-plains that the position would not be as it is, had any notice been taken of the recommendations that have been from time to time made in the various points that have been raised. The onus he places on the admini-stration ... The earlier age of a leaving certificate is possible if, and only if, the primary school is reformed or perhaps created. The vernacular school period from 6-11 years, is at present wasted. It is not a serious part of the educational scheme of the colony. If this were reformed as the report suggests the quality of the pupils entering the Anglo Chinese school would be very much higher. Further if such subjects, in the early stages, as arithmetic, geography, and simple science were given through the me-dium of Chinese the pupils would be more advanced in knowledge and
the teaching of English would not be such a burden as it is at present.
17. 'A Note on Secondary Education in Hong Kong7, by the Non-African Educa-tion Report Sub-committee of the Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, 10 August 1937, in the Creech-Jones Papers, Mss. Brit. Emp. s. 332, Rhodes House, Oxford.
Again quite serious differences are disclosed between the ideas prevailing in Britain (especially the Colonial Office) at the time and the assumptions of the Hong Kong admini-stration. The extract from the ACEC's 'Note on Secondary Education in Hong Kong' quoted below is tantamount to a reprimand for Sayer and may help to explain not only why he was soon replaced as Director of Education but also why he was not invited to become member of the 1943-44 Colonial Office Committee on Higher Education in Hong Kong and Malaya even though he was working in the wartime British civil service at the time.
.. . we saw no reason to question the recommendations contained in the Burney Report, and we thought it impossible for effect to be given to these recommendations if the education policy of the Government of Hong Kong continued in accordance with the views expressed by Mr. Sayer [Director of Education] at our meeting...
... Mr. Sayer has recorded no definite opinion on the suggestion made at our meeting that the English staff in the Education Department should be asked to acquire some knowledge of the language of the pupils they are teaching. But we got the impression that he did not view the suggestion sympathetically. We hope and believe that the suggestion will receive very serious consideration. There can be no doubt that a teacher who does not know the mother tongue of the pupils under instruction is unable adequately to appreciate their difficulties or to understand their mental background.
... Mr. Sayer does not seem to appreciate the significance of the recent development of educational thought on this subject [Physical Training] and of the changes that have resulted from such thought, not only in England but in all educationally advanced countries. The recent arrange-ments, to which he adheres, suggest that physical training is regarded as an extra, to be placed in the hands of instructors with no concept of its educational significance, rather than as an integral part of the school course, to be taken by regular members of the staff, educationally quali-fied to appreciate its relation to other subjects in the curriculum.
18. School life in the inter-war period.
(a) The Diocesan Boys' School Timetable, 1929 (Illus.5.3).
The 1929 timetable of the Diocesan Boys' School offers more detail than its predecessor of 1871 (see Chapter 3, Evidence 8(a)). For that reason, it may give a clearer impression of the formal curriculum of one of the leading Grant Schools of the time. Its accuracy is ensured by the fact that it was included in a book produced in 1930 by the Headmaster of D.B.S.35
(b) St. Paul's Magazine, French Convent School, 1940; pp. 16-30 & 120-25 (Illus. 5.4).
This set of extracts from the school magazine of the French Convent School (now known as the St. Paul's Convent School, Causeway Bay) may help to evoke impressions of the school year and what it was like to be a boarder in a well-known Grant School in the period immediately before the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong.
19. Fong Mee-yin, The First Hundred Years of Hong Kong Education, pp. 139-44.
A second extract from Fong Mee-yin's work, thanks largely to his apparent fondness for lists, provides interesting information, especially about the names of the private ver-nacular schools founded between the two World Wars. The following passage represents a rough translation of the Chinese Original.
Attitudes of social organizations and individuals towards education and how thy ran their schools
The period 1914 to 1941 was a time of great advancement for educa-tion. In these twenty-eight years, various social organizations and indi-viduals worked hard for the development of education. Consequently, numerous schools were set up.
In 1916, the Chinese Government's Education Ministry began to di-vide the school year into two semesters, i.e., the period from 1st August until 31st January of the following year as the first school semester, and 1st
35. Rev. W.T. Featherstone, The Diocesan Boys School and Orphanage, Hongkong (Hong Kong: Ye Olde Printerie, Ltd., 1930), pp. 124-25. Comparisons might be made with Fong Mee-yin's description of the curriculum of Anglo-Chinese schools at the turn of the century (Chapter 4, Evidence 12) and the timetable included in the Prospectus of the French Convent School (Chapter 4, Evidence 24, or more generally with the various descriptions of the curriculum of early Government schools and that of the traditional Chinese schools con-tained in Chapters 1,2 and 3.
THE e>0@cIg￡\K] R@Yc. ScC=3RcL
From
9.00 a.m. to
9.40 a.m.
Chinese
Set Book Composition Composition
Geography Arithmetic
Dictation Drawing Arithmetic
Chinese Physics
Dictation Geography Science
Arithmetic Dictation Arithmetic
Arithmetic
Chinese Composition Grammar
Composition Geography Arithmetic Dictation Arithmetic Arithmetic
From From From From From From From
9.40 a.m. to 10.20 a.m. 10.20 a.m. to 11.00 a.m. 11.20 a.m. to 12.00 noon 12.00 noon to 12.40 p.m. 12.40 p.m. to 1.05 p.m. 2.10 p.m. to 2.50 p.m. 2.50 p.m. to 3.30 p.m.
Composition Composition Chemistry Book-Keeping Book-Keeping History Algebra
Chemistry Dictation Composition Drawing Grammar Grammar Arithmetic Transcription Chinese Geography Reading Composition Scripture Geography Dictation Conversation Algebra Chinese Dictation Dictation Dictation Arithmetic Reading Object Lesson Scripture Geometry Drawing Chinese History Reading Object Lesson Reading General Arithmetic Chinese Reading Map Scripture Grammar Geography Geography Reading Arithmetic Arithmetic \ ‧ Chinese ' Drawing French Scripture Reading
Literature Scripture Drawing Geometry Geography Dictation Physics
Physics Chinese General Algebra History Physics Arithmetic Reading Geography Scripture Grammar Reading Scripture Dictation Copy Writing Grammar and Spelling Geometry Chinese Dictation Dictation Dictation Object Lesson Reading Conversation History Reading Drawing Chinese Object Lesson Object Lesson Drawing Reading Book Keeping Algebra Chinese Reading Ship Reader History Geography Drawing Dictation History Chemistry Arithmetic !‧ Chinese 1 Scripture French Scripture History
Literature History Dictation Composition Drawing Grammar Reading Object Lesson Transcription Scripture Chinese Geography History Composition Drawing Object Lesson Dictation Grammar Drawing Arithmetic Chinese Dictation Dictation Reading Arithmetic Conversation Object Lesson Arithmetic Chemistry Physics General Chinese History Arithmetic Reading Reading Geography Book Keeping Physics Chinese Scripture Scripture Geography Grammar Conversation
Illus. 5.3 Timetable of the Diocesan Boys' School.
From
3.30
p.m. to
4.10
p.m.
Trigonometry i Drawing Scripture Physics History
Physics Geography Drawing Algebra French
s §
I
s 3
Prayers
8.50 a.m.
Class 1 2 3 4 MONDAY 5 6
7a 7b 8
Class 1
TUESDAY
WDAY.
2 3 4 5 6 7a 7b 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7a 7b 8
TIME TABLE, 1929—(Continued.)
From From From From From From From From From Prayers 9.00 a.m. to 9.40 a.m. to 10.20 a.m. to 11.20 a.m. to 12.00 noon to 12,40 p.m. to 2.10 p.m. to 2.50 p.m. to 3.30 p.m. to
8.50
a.m.
9.40
a.m. 10.20 a.m. 11.00 a.m. 12.00 noon 12.40 p.m. 1.05 p.m. 2.50 p.m. 3.30 p.m. 4.10 p.m.
Class 1 Singing Chinese Literature Physics Trigonometry Geography History Chemistry Chemistry
2 Singing Grammar Chinese Trigonometry Physics Physics Geometry Scripture Dictation 3 Singing Reading Arithmetic Chinese Geometry Composition Algebra History Scripture
4 Singing Geography Reading Arithmetic Algebra Chinese Scripture French Composition THURSDAY 5 Science Singing Composition Dictation Chinese Science Arithmetic Scripture History 6 Arithmetic Singing Reading Dictation Ship Reader History
7a Reading Singing History Drawing Conversation Arithmetic r Chinese
7b Arithmetic Singing Dictation Reading History Repetition H Arithmetic Singing Scripture Reading Copy Writing Geography
and Spelling
Class 1 Chinese Grammar Scripture Chemistry Composition Physics General Algebra Geometry 2 Composition Grammar Chinese Trigonometry Algebra Geography Set Book Chemistry Chemistry 3 Grammar History Geography Chinese Chemistry Chemistry Geometry Drawing Scripture
4 Geography Arithmetic Dictation History Algebra Chinese Chemistry French Reading
FRDDAY 5 Geography General Composition Reading Chinese Reading French Scripture Arithmetic 6 Arithmetic Grammar Drawing Dictation Reading Grammar 7a Dictation Grammar Reading Scripture Arithmetic Conversation
V Chinese
7b Arithmetic Scripture Geography Reading Dictation Conversation 8 Arithmetic Transcription Drawing Object Lesson Reading Scripture
Illus. 53 (Continued)
fAt iff **&*
￡P \ r I 11
o ON
I
en ￡ p 2 x w in 3
OUR UP-AND-DOINGS
Opening This year there was a record of the School. number of applicants who sat
for their entrance examination a few days before the re-opening of school in September 1939. In the upper classes, those students who were conditioned in some important subject had likewise to sit for an examination with the new-comers.
Despite the great excitement then prevailing in the Colony due to the rumours of war, and preparation and precautions against air raids and suchlike hor-rors, St. Paul's Institution carried on its quiet, unassuming but busy life, thus counteracting the panicky attitude of a large majority of the local residents. With the taking over of La Salle College by the Government for the accommodation of Ger-man internees, the tension became such that we all felt that there was nothing to do but to do the right thing which was to trust in Divine Providence. It was with a thankful heart that on the appointed day, when the school bell rang out its cheerful sum-mons to class and lessons, we resumed our peaceful and happy occupation of learning to obey so as to acquire knowledge of "what is man, why did God make man, and what is the destiny of man". i y
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
Among the "new" were familiar faces with spark-ling smiles and the confident look and gait of the Hong Kong University graduates. Misses Josephine Choa and Catherine Fong have come back to their Alma Mater to devote themselves, in co-operation with the Sisters, in the field of education. To all our teachers we extend a hearty welcome and welco-me back. We are glad to have with us again Miss Winnie Yu whose winning personality has endeared her to all her pupils, also Miss Lily Lo, our patient and painstaking senior Mathematics teacher, Misses
M. and H. Abbas, the latter one of our most loyal past students, another being Miss Ena Julebin. Welcome too to our dear assistant teachers in the lower classes, Misses Myra Noronha, Mary Lau and the three charming debutantes (Misses Leah Halsall, Therese Noronha and Florence Cheung), who are, we understand, on the waiting list to join the Teachers' Training College, and last but not least, Miss Lee, our energetic and incomparable Physical Training teacher and devoted coach in soft-ball and net-ball. Unfortunately we are strictly forbidden to sing the praises of our well-loved Sisters, not forgetting those who have retired from the teaching staff. Their kindnesses to us will "travel down the years till in heaven their deeds appear".
Rev. Mother's We had barely time to settle
Birthday. down when we had to think of
getting up something to feast
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
Rev. Mother for her 71st birthday. Our "fete de famille" opened with the traditional complimentary addresses followed by a little play entitled uThe Magic Word". Two other items on the program were a Filipino Folk dance and a balloon dance by the hostel girls. Rev. Mother appreciated our poor efforts to show her that we shall always try to bear in mind that "a word of civility costs nothing", and has magic power of transforming the modern rough-and-ready tom-boys that we are, into the gracious convent-bred girls that she wishes us to be.
Mass Of the The date fixed for the Mass of
Holy Ghost. the Holy Ghost coincided with
another birthday, that of our
dear headmistress. Those of us who were in the
know remembered to pray for her in a special man-ner. The singing of the hymns during Mass was of a much greater volume than in previous years. The tunes had become more familiar and we were no longer afraid to let our voices resound in our beauti-ful and spacious chapel. Once again our great friend, Fr. Byrne, said Mass. His sermon has as usual driven straight home, therefore I do not hesi-tate to try to give a somewhat lengthy account of it. I only wish I were able to reproduce it in detail. He began by saying that he was going to read to us a few passages from a letter. But he first explained that about some time before Easter, the Yice-Chan-cellor of the Hong Kong University had an interview
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
with Gen. Chang Kai Shek who told him that he could employ a thousand engineers at $100 a month, which news was announced to the University students. A certain number of engineers and medical students (and from Ricci Hall nearly half of those who gra-duated were engineers) volunteered and were accep-ted. When one makes an offer of that kind, one looks forward to a certain kind of glory; one expects there will be work worthy of the action to be done. There may be disappointments and great disappoint-ments in life. The writer of the letter was one of the engineers. He was for two years Prefect of the Sodality of the Children of Mary; he was a convert.
"My last letter described to you only the apparent conditions. In this letter I shall try to give the reality. I told you previously that we were booked temporarily to look after old and broken paths and dismantled motor cars. I tried my best to see what I could do but in vain so that I had to satisfy myself to sitting and idling. We were given some books with which to pass our time. We inquired of the official what was their reason for employing us here, since there was no work. He told us that they were waiting for the documents. Thus we waited patient-ly. Week after week passed and still there was no sign of the documents. Our present situation is something like this. We are tied to tank full of water watching a house nearby on fire. We have
g(D) to try our best not to bring any bad stain on the
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
University name,.... Let me switch on to another subject. The food is frightfully dear. We required the minimum amount of |36 a month; we had to stand by watching others getting theirs. Each of us was then allowed $30. We found it impossible to continue our meals outside as our money was getting-short. At the beginning of this month we started to take our meals inside paying $12 a month.., We were supposed to undergo military training, but as we were not told when to start, so every morning I slip off to church. It takes me f hour to reach there. Mass is at 6.30 a.m., so I have to be off at 5.45".
Father Byrne then said: "Here is a young lad as highly qualified as his companions who did not make the sacrifice. These young men made the sacrifice; they offered themselves for their country realizing their sacrifice. Now the result of that sacrifice is most disappointing. They arrive there to find they have no definite instructions. We all feel that when we have done something difficult we ought to reap at once the fruits of our sacrifice. Things do not come about so. What is the reaction of the disappointment on the one who has made the sacrifice? It depends a lot on his character. Has he made the sacrifice in order to be congratulated, in order to be praised? This is not a sacrifice, He is looking ahead. When he makes the sacrifice he really means that he offers himself for something difficult; he is not going to draw back even if the difficulty increases beyond his anticipation. He will go ahead.,. There is no com-
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
plaint. Where does this young man draw strength? You saw in the last paragraph... Since there is no work, he steals out quietly and runs for ￡ hour in order to get to Mass. There is stuff behind that. He believes in the Mass. There is the question of realizing that he wants to get to Mass. He realizes that there is a value in the Mass beyond all human value, and that is where he gets the strength. It is interesting to know that one of his companions, when he came to Ricci Hall, asked to be instructed, saying: "I am convinced that the religion of this student must be the true one". It was the example, the good example of a thorough practice of his religion, that brought about this strong conviction. It is not like the religion you take down on Sunday. Religion should go through your life; it is something that brings out all that is best and most generous in your character".
"Your are beginning the year. What are you going to pour into your heads? A lot of Arithmetic, Geography and History to prepare for the examina-tion, but most of that will disappear very rapidly, in a year or two. The things that you learn in school have the effect of forming your mind. It is the fur-nishing of your memory, but the most important thing of all, and the one thing that you are forming day by day, it is the way you face your difficulties. You must build up a noble character, a generous cha-racter, the ideal character. The one thing that you are going to take away from your school is your
Illus. 5-4 (Continued)
character, and that is one thing that neither your teachers nor examinations can make it for you but you yourself. You will never learn if you exclude God".
Back again to lessons, some of us kept a constant watch-out for Fr. Byrne, for we knew that he would go round visiting the upper classes as was his wont. Some of the girls in Class 3A were so determined to keep him there as long as possible in the hope that they would escape some written task, that on his asking for an example of a "gerund" he received a most "ungerundial" sentence. But that did not matter in the least, for all that the girls wished was to show Father that they were pleased to see him among them.
Convent Bazaar. Bazaars are to-day a very
common feature in the Colony. Raffles of every imaginable kind were perhaps the most popular means of obtaining money in aid of any charitable fund. We had done our bit for Hong Kong's poor by spending all that we could spare at the annual St. Vincent de Paul's Bazaar. The fine portable typewriter raffled by Wan Yan College was won by a pupil of our school. One would think that with all these raffles and bazaars every purse had been emptied of the last cent it contained, but somehow our convent bazaar did turn out another success. The Fishing Pond and Candle Lighting were great attractions which brought in a goodly number of 10^ pieces-good and bad. The prizes,
Illus, 5.4 (Continued)
especially the souvenirs offered in exchange for the $1,- and $2.- tickets, consisted mostly of useful arti-cles, the patient and finished work of the Sisters. I dare say that the outsiders, like us students, were on the whole very satisfied with what they brought away with them.
Christmas Party. This year the Christmas party
took place in the afternoon so as not to interfere with the "breaking up". A glance at the programme will show that the Inter-class Amateur Dramatic Competition was the chief at-traction. The poor orphans were left to cool their heels for a good half hour or more before they were admitted by Santa Claus' assistants into the hall to receive their gift packets, and then hurried out to examine, compare, and perhaps to interchange presents.
Next the Report of Saint Paul's Recreation Club was read, and not very patiently listened to as everyone was eager for the plays to begin. The "Three Words", which was scheduled to last twenty minutes, left the standing audience somewhat with the feeling of having had enough, but the seated audience, and the judges especially, evidently thought differently. The other plays were then duly perfor-med and immediately after the judges' decision was announced, followed by the distribution of prizes to the proud winners. Finally, with greatings of "Happy
@4j. Christmas" to one and all, the party broke up. Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
Programme for X'mas Party-Thursday, Dec. 21, 1939. 2 p.m.
1.
Piano Solo Miss Paula Chan
2.
Distribution of Gifts by Santa Claus.
3.
Report of S, P. R. C, . . Miss Paula Hollands
4.
Inter-class Amateur Dramatic Competition (from Class 5 to Class 1).
5.
Distribution of Prizes, . Rev. Mother St. Xavier
6.
God Save the King.
Class Title of Play
5 "Three Words" (20 minutes) 4 Oberon and Titania ( | hour) 3 Toy Shop (20 minutes) 2 Bessie Bunter's X'mas Box ( | hour) 1 Christmas Treasury (^ hour)
Award of Prizes
1st Prize for the Best Play (Class 5) 2nd Prize for the Second Best Play (Class 3) 1st Prize for the Highest Collection (Class 5) 1st Prize for the Best Fancy Dress (Billie Kovach,
Class 3) 85
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
Easter Term* The second term was too short
for any activities, We would have had our annual public prize-day, only this year owing to the general depression on account of the war, it was thought best to let it go by quietly.
Annual Inspection. The Chinese New Year holidays
were a most welcome break. We were impatient for them to start, specially when it was announced to us that the Inspector was due and that school would not break up until he had been through the classes. There we were kicking our heels and sticking to our seats in the height of expec-tation of his all-important visit. It was late in the day when he came round to the upper classes, but "all's well that ends well", for our kind Inspector very considerately granted us a full day holiday the next day and that meant breaking up one day sooner. But before he left he promised to return in a fort-night's time, which promise or rather threat he has failed to carry out. We conclude that he must have been thoroughly satisfied with what he had seen of us and of our work.
Friendly Visit* Another visit of inspection we
received this term was that of Rev. Fr. P. Leroy S. X, who with his smiling eyes could not possibly frighten us big girls, much less the tiny tots in Class 9, one of whom, a little Chinese
c Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
of her impromptu reading. He just looked around on us with a smile, and made enquiries about average age, and looked into some of our text-books. He showed particular interest in our Science books and especially the Practical Work Note-books. We later learned that he is a geologist and naturalist and has given a most interesting lecture in Biology at the Hong Kong University. When we heard that he came from Tientsin and has also something to do with the Fu Yen University, we hoped that he knew, if he did
not see, that in nearly every classroom there is hanging on the wall a 1940 Art Calendar of the Fu Yen University. The Jesuit Fathers are everybody's friends, and so we look upon Fr. Leroy as a new friend of the school.
Entertainments* Short as was this term, we
were busy outside class with practices for the Annual Sports Net-ball League Matches, and rehearsing for the presentation of "Snow-White and the Seven Dwarfs". The first performance, for our school only, was held on the last day of the term; the public performances were fixed for Easter Week, that is, after the short Easter holidays. On the eve of breaking up day, we were entertained with another play, presented, through the kindness of Rev. Fr. Gallagher, by the boys of Wah Yan College. We enjoyed the fine acting of "The Messenger", especially those who did the femi-
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
nine roles. We thought the servant maid exceedingly good because "she" was so natural.
Charity The third term began with
Performances, great activities. There were
the three public performances
of "Snow-White and the Seven Dwarfs". The
following letter of appreciation leave nothing else to be said about it:
My dear Friends, "On behalf of the Catholic Truth Society, I want to thank you very sincerely for the help which you have given us by the performance of "Snow-White and the Seven Dwarfs"—and I want to thank you all, not merely the players but those who helped in every way. "You have already heard, I am sure, what the au-diences thought of the performance. There was nothing but praise for it on all sides, for the produc-tion and musical direction, for the staging, for the principals, for the dwarfs, for the chorus and for the singers whom we did not see. Everyone enjoyed it heartily and felt very grateful to you for the pleasant entertainment that you gave them. "We all realize that your success was not only gained without long and careful preparation, and we know that while some were rehearsing their parts and others were practising their songs and dances, there were others too who were making the costumes
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
and planning all the details that went to make it a success; so I feel that we have many to thank, and I want you to know that we realize how much you deserve it. I know too that the success of the play was due to the co-operation of all the school as well as to those who had an actual part in it, for I have heard of the generous way in which you have bought tickets and have sold them to your friends. There-fore I want to express our thanks to your whole school, to Sisters as well as to Pupils, for the great help that you have combined to give to our work of spreading good literature in China, and for the pleasure that you have given to so many by this delightful performance. May God bless you all in
reward!"
Athletics. Hardly was that over when one
fine Wednesday morning, ins-tead of filing up to class, we marched out of the school gates, orderly, class by class, headed by the prefects and accompanied by the Sisters, to make our way to the Queen's College Ground for our Sports' heats. Then on the following Monday we had Our Annual Sports' Day. This year we did it in style, thanks to the splendid organization of our Drill Mistress, Miss Lee. No invitations had been sent for it was strictly a school affair, though as on all such occasions parents and friends were welcome guests. 3 9
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
War Charities. The presentation of "The Queen
of Sheba" in aid of the War Relief Fund, showed that we are still interested in helping war wounded. A special item on the pro-gramme for the occasion was Monique Arnoux's recitation of a touching French poem entitled "Appel de la France".
The French War Charity Bazaar organized by the ladies of the French community of Hong Kong was held in our school hall. Even if the local newspaper did not tell us that " the articles on display were presented to the bazaar by members of the local French community and local French firms", we could see that for ourselves because everything about the bazaar bore the unmistakable stamp of French handling.
Other ActivitieSo The other big events of this
term which are still to come are our Annual Retreat, First Communion and Confirmation in our Convent Chapel, reception into the Church of three more of our Pupils, Paula Chan (Class 1), Pennie Cheung (Class 2) and Lillian Yang (Class 3), and lastly the appearance of the second number of our school magazine.
35(D)
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
T~ . - .A
ISO
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
o o
C
BOARDING SCHOOL
One Happy Family and What each Member thinks of being a Boarder
As far as I can remember, my happiest days are the days when I am in school as a boarder. I have been a boarder already for nine long years and I am not "fed up" ; if I had to stay for ten years more I would stay willingly. Most girls think that a boarder is just like a jail-bird ; they are wrong. It is true we do not have so much freedom as the day-scholars but we do enjoy ourselves nevertheless.
In the boarding school we are taught to be obedient, to love one another, to be thrifty, and above all to observe the rules.
Here in the convent I have learned to like everyone, no matter of what race, and whether rich or poor. A boarder should look upon the rest of her companions as her sisters, and share her joys with them. I have also learned to stand on my two feet, though I still forget myself very often and fall into trouble, but there is always Sister to pick me up and set me on my feet again.
We boarders have rules and we have got to keep to them. There is a special and proper time for everything. Every Sunday we go out for strolls or 131
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
tram rides ; on longer holidays we usually go to the New Territories to a house called Cheery ' Ole, and what fun we have!
The convent is my "home" for I feel perfectly at home here.
Billie Kovach
Class 3 B.
To be a boarder is very nice, especially on holidays when we have plenty of time to play, and we always enjoy ourselves. We are all friends here, and when we do quarrell we make up very soon. We have good food and are all in good health.
Nona Sharrock Class 4 ￡.
My life in the boarding school is full of fun. When I am naughty I do not get my pocket money or I get some other punishment, but I realize that I get punished for my own good.
Mildred Coates
Class 4 B.
I like boarding school life in a way. I liked being a boarder when my cousin was here for she used to advise me when I was in trouble, and I am always getting into trouble for one thing or another. What I do not like about being a boarder is that we do not have much free time; we sometimes have to do our lessons even though it is our recreation time. And
1S5S we are expected to take part in all the school activi-
Illus, 5.4 (Continued)
ties, whether we like it or not. However, in spite of everything I like our school.
Therese da Roza Class 4 B.
I like very much being a boarder. There are many girls and I like all of them. I am a boarder because I did not have enough time to study and do my home-
workhome at ev home; but hereery other Saturda wey. certainly have. I go
Silmy Albers Class 5 A.
The reason why I do not like being a boarder is because here in the convent I have not the freedom to do as I like and as I am used to at home.
Maria Carvalho Class 5 A.
I am a boarder and I quite like it. When it is raining it is very dull and gloomy, especially on Sun-days. Sometimes the Sisters are strict, but I think that is what they have to be.
Eleanor Pirie Class 6 A.
I like this school quite a lot. We boarders have nice times. I learn much more here than I did in my last school. And another reason why I like this school is because there is the most beautiful chapel I have ever seen; it is really pretty.
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
I like making my bed in the morning. Sometimes I race with Eleanor my friend. I always have fun with all the boarders, but I like Eleanor best.
Vivienne Rowe
Class 6 A.
I like staying in this boarding school because there are many girls. I like this school very much, and I am so happy here because everybody and every-thing is so nice.
Yvonne Basto
Class 6 A,
I find boarding school life very dull. I envy the day-scholars, especially on Sundays and holidays, because they can go to shows or go out to play and enjoy themselves, while we boarders spend most of our spare time sitting in the study hall with nothing in particular to do.
Rosalind Wong
Class 6 B.
I like it here very much all except class because the work is very hard. Pat Burroughs
Class 6 A.
It is lots of fun staying here because there are many girls to play with. I am very glad when I come first in class because then I get a lot of sweets and biscuits.
Mary Yuen
‧n g^l Class 8.
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
I like being a boarder because I have lots of fun here. Sometimes for punishment I am not allowed to go home on Sunday, but whenever I am punished I know I deserve it.
Tania Zelihovsky Class 8.
My boarding life is very pleasant because there are many girls and I have lots of fun playing with them.
The Sisters sometimes scold me, but I know that it is only for my good.
Natalia Vigiliads Class 8.
I like this school very much, I have a sister here in Class 7 A. My mummy comes to see us twice a week.
Dorothy Rowe Class 8.
I like staying here because there are many girls and I have lots of fun. I came here because where I live there is no English school. Every day I study very hard because I want to pass class. I get punish-ed when I do not know my lessons.
Margaret Heggic
Class 9.
O <> o
Illus. 5.4 (Continued)
February until 31st July as the second semester. This new school calendar was adopted by most schools in Hong Kong.
In 1928, the Ministry of Education in China introduced a new regula-tion about the registration of private schools, requiring all private schools to register with the executive office of the Ministry. According to the same regulation, all school principals and chairmen of boards of governors had to be Chinese. From this time onwards, many schools established in Hong Kong also registered themselves in China.36
In 1939, because of the Sino-Japanese War, many educationalists from the coastal region of China moved to Hong Kong. They began to set up academies or colleges, secondary schools, primary schools, and various kinds of vocational schools. Education in Hong Kong thus bloomed and entered a period of great advancement.
Most overseas Chinese schools set up in Hong Kong were Chinese Middle Schools and most of them had an attached primary section. Since the Hong Kong Education Department then required male and female secondary school students to attend separate schools, each overseas Chi-nese school usually had two establishments, one for boys and the other for girls, whereas, for the primary section, one building was sufficient be-cause boys and girls were allowed to have lessons together at this level.
The following are famous private Chinese schools founded on Hong Kong Island, in Kowloon, and in the New Territories during the period 1914 to 1941.
A. Private Chinese Schools on Hong Kong Island and in Kowloon
1.
Tung Yung School (1918)
2.
Duen Mui Middle School (1919)
3.
Wei Man School (1919)
4.
Ning Nam Middle School (1922)
5.
Shun Sau Middle School (1922)
6.
Sung Jing Tsung Hui I-hsueh (1922)
7.
Fang Lin Co-educational Middle School (1923)
8.
Fei Yuen Middle School (1923)
9.
Sung Nan Middle School (1923)
10.
Chien Li Middle School (1924)
11.
Min Seng College (1926)
12.
Chung Wah Middle School (1926)
13.
Sui Wah School (1927)
14.
Chiu-chow Public School, Hong Kong Branch (1929)
36. This was not the only result. The requirement that the principals and chairmen of the board of management of each school should be Chinese induced some schools, particularly those run by foreign missionaries, to transfer themselves from China to Hong Kong. True Light Middle School is a good example of this trend.
15. Guo Gwong School (1929)
16. The Kowloon Lok Sien Tang School (1929)
17. Ning Tung Co-educational Middle School (1930)
18. The Oriental Middle School (1930)
19. TaShing School (1930)
20. Siu Chau School (1930)
21. Chung Nam Middle School (1931)
22. Wanchai Pui Ching School (1931)
23. Ji Xing Middle School (1932)
24. Tak Ming Middle School (1934)
25. Wah Nam Middle School (1934)
26. Tung Jih Middle School (1936)
27. Yang Guang School (1936)
28. Chao Guang Middle School (1937)
29. Guang Wah Middle School (1938)
30. Wah Ying Girls7 Middle School (1938)
31. Subsidized Day School of the Hong Kong Chinese Education College Student Union (1938)
32. The Chinese Children's College (1938)
33. Han Wah Middle School (1938)
34. Kit Ying Kindergarten (1939)
35. Chung Wah Primary School (1940)
36. The Peninsula School (1941)
B. Private Chinese Schools in the New Territories
1. Bo-min Subsidized School, Sheung Shui (1919)
2. Yen Hing School, Yuen Long (1920)
3. Yue Wen School, Shatin (1920)
4. Jih Sien School, Sai Kung (1920)
5. Pei Wen School (1923)
6. Ding Jao Ming Tak Public School, Tai Po (1925)
7. Kam Tin Mung Yang Public School, Yuen Long (1926)
8. Sai Kung Sports Association School (1926)
9. Ji On Public School (1930)
10. Jing Guan Subsidized School, Sha Tau Kok (1930)
11. Tat Tak School, Ping Shan (1931)
12. Castle Peak Buddhist Primary School (1935)
13. Yao Kung School, Yuen Long (1935)
14. Ming Tak Subsidized School, Tuen Mun (1935)
15. Cheung Chau Han Chuen Primary School (1938)
16. Wing On School, Yuen Long (1938)
17. Man Wo School, Sha Tau Kok (before 1941)
18. Yuk Ying School, Tai Po (before 1941)
19. Nam Cheung School, Sai Kung (before 1941)
A small number of private schools obtained subsidies or grants from the Government which helped in their development. For example, Min Seng College, a Chinese school founded in 1926, received a special grant of $6,000 from the Government in 1935. Most schools sponsored by social organizations also received financial assistance from the Government. Subsidies given to private schools in the New Territories helped in the promotion of village education.
Many rich merchants who were enthusiastic about education made donations or set up scholarships to help students coming from poor fami-lies. In doing this, they contributed greatly as moving forces for the development of education in this period.
Characteristics and contributions of education in the period of great advancement
From 1914 to 1941, during this period of educational advancement in Hong Kong, the standard of various kinds of schools was considerably improved and their numbers also greatly increased. The Hong Kong Education Department was particularly concerned about the training of teachers. The establishment of Normal Schools and the opening of training courses were responsible for improving the quality of teachers in Hong Kong.
From 1911, with the opening of the University of Hong Kong, a total educational system was gradually being achieved. Students could then complete their education in Hong Kong, starting from kindergarten and proceeding by stages up to university, with no need to go back to China or to travel abroad. Students could also enter vocational schools or technical colleges to receive training, preparing themselves to serve in the industrial or commercial fields.
Ever since the beginning of the colony in 1842, education in Hong Kong had gradually taken root. It developed until it reached a period of great advancement. In 1941, however, due to the invasion of the Japanese army, the development of education came to an abrupt end. (The author believes that if this original system had not been destroyed by the Japa-nese, education in Hong Kong would have been in an even better devel-oped condition now).37
37. As reference to other Evidence in this chapter will suggest, the author here appears to be looking at the inter-war years through rosy lenses. Though it cannot be denied that impor-tant developments took place in this period, all was not sweetness and light. The effects of the Strike and Boycott, the prolonged struggle to introduce technical education and the criticisms of the system advanced by Burney and others, for example, tempt one to search for a less one-sided appraisal of the period 1914-41.
20. 'The Report of the Hong Kong University (1937) Committee' (Illus. 5.5).
A copy of the whole of the 1937 Report on Hong Kong University is included here since it has never been published in Hong Kong. As will be seen, the criticisms of the University were forthright. After the first shock, the University authorities attempted to answer their critics by producing a Development Plan.38
21. Extracts from articles in the Hong Kong University Education Journal.
A range of articles from this Journal has been selected in order to give some impression of the scope of the Journal as well as the type of issues which were considered of interest to academic educationalists in Hong Kong in this period.
(a)
Dr E.M. Minett, 'Health in School', 5 (November 1930), 72-77 ff.
.. . Of the 1007 schools in the colony only 19 (5 British, 1 Indian, and 13 Chinese) can be medically inspected; even then a school medical officer could not solve the problem of being in more than one place at one time — a few astral bodies, able to use a stethoscope, would be most welcome adjuncts to the service. Inspection on the 'group' system, as in England, is aimed at, (entrant, 8 to 9 year, and leaver) but only the entrant (and in a few schools, the 8 to 9 year) has been accomplished ...
(b)
A.H. Fewick, 'Chinese Studies in the University', 6 (December 1931), 79 ff.
... It is a distressing fact but no-one is more convinced than Young China, that Chinese studies are simply not worth their while, when there are so many urgently important things demanding their attention . . . Chinese students have shown some ingenuity of recent years in coercing other people, but so far no-one has discovered any means of coercing the students into studying Chinese, beyond the bare minimum they recognize to be necessary.
(c)
'Editorial Notes', 8 (November 1933).
... When the lecture [by Fr. G. Byrne, S.J.; see below] was thrown open to the audience for general discussion, many instructive and critical remarks were made by some of the local school teachers present, who were particularly interested in the ever puzzling problem of the 'Pari-Passu' System. Really, when we are faced with the ever increasing number of Chinese students who have failed in their own language in the Matriculation Examinations held by
38. This was the work of the Hong Kong University Development Committee of 1939 chaired by the Vice-Chancellor, Mr Duncan Sloss. See the Chronicle for 1939.
REPORT OF THE
UNIVERSITY (1937) COMMITTEE.
1.
We were appointed by His Excellency the Governor immediately after he had, as Chancellor of the University, announced such an intention first to the Court of the University on 15th December, 1936, and subsequently at the Congregation held on 4th January, 1937.
2.
The Hong Kong University is an institution constitutionally separate from the Government of the Colony, and our appointment by the Government, rather than by the University itself, indicated that the continuance or the amount of the annual subsidy from public funds might in any year become a budgetary issue.
3.
The Council of the University later associated itself with our appointment by a resolution, passed unanimously on the bth February. 1937, promising the Com-mittee all possible assistance in its endeavour from the University as a whole.
4.
Our terms of reference were as follows :—
(I)
To investigate the present, and probable future, financial position of the Hong Kong University and to advise whether any changes are desirable in its staffing, peisonnel, salary scales or organization;
(ii)
To inquire and advise whether any such, or other, changes are desir-able in the interest of its utility or prestige;
(iii) To tender any other advice or suggestions for the future of the University.
5.
Our first action was to advertise in the local press our terms of reference and to invite expressions of views from the public.
6.
On 25th January we instructed our Secretary to address the Government in the following terms :—
"Sir,
University (1937) Committee.
At a meeting of the above Committee held on 25th January, 1937, it was decided that, without waiting for its final report, the attention of the Government should be drawn to the serious situation arising from the early departure of His Excellency the Chancellor and the announced intention of the Vice-Chancellor to take leave towards the end of 1937 prior to retirement.
2.
In the opinion of the Committee it is urgently necessary to consider the selection of a suitable successor to Sir William Hornell.
3.
The Committee also feels strongly that the new Vice-Chancellor should be in the Colony before Sir William Hornell's departure, even if some additional expense is thereby entailed.
I am, Sir, Your obedient servant,
(Sd.)Secretary, Univ J. H. B. LEE, ersity (1937) Committee.
THE HONTHE OURABLE, COLONIAL SECRETARY, HONG KONG."
Illus. 5.5 'The Report of the Hong Kong University (1937) Committee'.
7. All the witnesses who were good enough to give us their views, whether members of the University staff or others, understood clearly that those views would be treated in the very strictest confidence. For this reason we do not propose either to give the names of such witnesses or to disclose the system upon which we pursued our inquiries; and our considered conclusions will in general be given without any statement of the grounds on which they are based.
Finance.
8.
In accordance with the first of our terms of reference we have made a very close examination of the present financial position of the University. On the assumption that the subsidy from the public funds of the Colony can be maintained at its present figure of $350,000 per annum, and on the further assumption that the income from fees will remain at its present figure of about $200,000 we may say at once that the existing position is not unsatisfactory.
9.
The only other considerable source of income is, of course, the interest on the endowment funds (in which for convenience we have included certain special benefactions), and these in the immediate future may be expected to yield nearly $440,000 per annum.
10.
With the economies now in force the total running expenses of the University come to only a few thousand dollars over $1,000,000; and it will be seen from this that, for once in its existence, there is no need for the University to panic.
11.
We hasten to add that, taking the long view which we are specifically instructed to do, we consider the financial position unsatisfactory. We cannot but think that financially the University has in the past existed far too much from hand to mouth and we consider it to be our duty to face future possibilities steadily.
12.
As regards the endowment funds more than one half of the income conies from sterling securities which we are satisfied are good. Of the balance approximately one-third comes from Hong Kong investments and two-thirds from Shanghai invest-ments. In each case mortgages form the predominant factor, and we cannot con-sider, in present circumstances, that such a form of investment, especially in the case of Shanghai mortgages, is as safe as we should desire.
13 . The present book value of the total endowment fund investments is just over ten million dollars; and we consider that it would be prudent to anticipate, not an appreciation in the* capital value, but rather a gradual decline in the total yield to the ''gilt-edged'' basis of about 3%%. If this anticipation is justified the $440,000 mentioned above must be reduced Iby at least $66,000 per annum.
14. Furthermore even if no expension is to be contemplated in the University's activities, and we are more than reluctant to believe that such a decision is inevit-able, it is to be remembered that nothing has been allowed in successive budgets for depreciation on buildings, some of them now growing old, and that there is no reserve fund whatever. It is our considered opinion that the University should no longer be content to live from hand to mouth bub should at the earliest possible moment start including a surplus figure of at least $15,000 in every annual budget to go to reserve.
15 . If the above is accepted we are at once faced with the necessity of sug-gesting economies of a "long-term" nature even if we need not recommend the emergency methods that have too often been unavoidable in the past.
16. Two comparatively minor economies present themselves. The House Allow-ances paid to members of the staff who live out at present average about $20,000 per annum. We suggest that the allowances now paid to married men witli families, married men without families and bachelors respectively are too high if
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
rent alone is considered. As a proof of this we understand that there has been a certain reluctance to occupy the quarters provided at the University. We are told, for example, that certain married quarters are at present occupied by individual bachelors while married officers live out and draw the highest allowance. Such a situation is in our opinion one that should not be allowed.
17
. We also suggest that the Finance Committee should investigate the pos-sibility of erecting a block of flats in the University grounds for the use of the staff. The exact figure must depend on the numbers to be accommodated, but even on the basis of borrowing funds for the building we are satisfied that an approximate saving of $10,000 a year as against the present allowances would be possible. If the Shanghai mortgage portion of the endowment fund can be realised, this would seem to be a profitable method of reinvesting that portion of the endowment fund.
18
. Secondly there is the Sterling Superannuation Fund. Apart from the contribution made by the University, the interest allowed by the Bank on the sums paid by the contributors themselves has now to be supplemented by as much again from the general funds of the University to bring it up to 4%. In 1937 this will amount to about $18,000 and this figure must necessarily increase in future years. We suggest that the Bank deposit, less a small liquid amount, might be invested in the general funds of the University. With interest reckoned on a 3-J% basis we estimate that an annual saving of about $13,000 would be possible by such a process, and the only alternative to this would seem to be a reduction in the rate of interest allowed to contributors.
19. It will however be readily seen from a glance at the University's budget that any such economies can only touch the fringe. Of the round million dollars which comprise the expenditure side almost exactly one half represents the emolu-ments of the staff on sterling rates of pay. It is here that any substantial reduc-tions, such as we have tried to show are imperative, must be sought. And what remains of this Report will naturally be largely concerned with this problem.
Engineering.
20
. It is not difficult to see what were the ideals in the minds of the founders of the University 25 years ago when they insisted that an Engineering Faculty was an integral part of the scheme. China in 1911 was beginning to awake; her educational system was still woefully inadequate; and there was a vast field for development of railways and roads, waterworks, power plants and factories. What could be more fitting than that Great Britain, always in the forefront of engineer-ing matters, should provide in its outpost in China the means by which the engineers required for this awakening could be trained? There would be prestige; there would be something like benevolence; and there might be the indirect advantage of making China's pioneers think in terms of British standards and material when it came to purchase of plant.
21
. How far has that dream of the founders been fulfilled? It is only 20 years since the first Engineering graduates of the University went out into the world, and it is in view of their present ages perhaps too early to judge fully of those indirect effects. But we have examined carefully the statistics of those 227 men who have graduated since 1916.
22
. Bearing in mind the objects of the founders we must, we consider, eliminate the 35 graduates of non-Chinese race. Of the remaining 192 only 82 have obtained engineering posts in China proper and of these we observe that the majority are filling posts which are not at all commensurate with the cost of their education.
23
. The cost of the Faculty for the month of January, 1937, was $13,500. This figure covers salaries only, with no allowance for the capital cost of buildings and of workshop plant, and with no allowance for administrative overheads, though the appropriate proportions have been taken of certain courses (Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry) shared with other Faculties. The total number of Engineer-ing students being trained during the same month was 118.
Illus. 55{Continued)
24. The scope of an Engineering Faculty in British and American Universities goes far beyond anything which, in our opinion, should be attempted in Hong Kong. In these Universities its functions rightly embrace original work, research and an advisory capacity to industry as well as sound teaching in the principles of engineering. In Electrical Engineering, for example, we are advised that a Technical College even of a high order would concentrate upon such points as operation and repair; whereas a University proper would go in more for research and design. In our view it is quite oat of the question for Hong Kong to compete in the latter sphere with the vast aggregation of electrical knowledge of Europe and America; nor can we see any good reason why this should even be attempted. The same is equally true of Mechanical Engineering. It follows that in our view Hong Kong University need not follow the organization of Universities situated in England.
25
. The Faculty is at present organized with the three Departments of Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering—each under its own Professor with his assistant staff. We are left with the clear impression that these Departments work disjointedly and we are satisfied that a less elaborate and a less pretentious organization will amply meet the present day requirements of the University. Our main conclusions in regard to staffing this Faculty are that a single Professor will suffice instead of the present three; that he will naturally be the Tai-koo Professor of Engineering (who need not by Statute necessarily be a Professor of Mechanical Engineering), that he should be ex officio Dean of the Faculty; and that he will be assisted by a staff of Lecturers (partly we would hope recruited from the ablest products of the University itself) who in the various departments would be adequate to give instructions on the lines required- These changes when they can be carried out without injustice to the present staff would we are con-vinced result in a better organization and a better discipline throughout the Faculty as well as securing an appreciable economy.
28
. From the Departments of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering may in-time be derived in fuller measure than at present those advantages for British export trade to which we have already alluded. And we shall later on stress the desirability from this point of view of reinforcing the work of these departments.
27
. The Department of Civil Engineering must be evalued somewhat different-ly. Unlike the other two departments there is not much hope, except very in-directly, of obtaining from it those material benefits which will assist Imperial trade. For this reason it is hardly to be expected that firms in the United Kingdom wall be anxious to provide gratuitously practical post-graduate apprenticeships for the students concerned. And yet it is just in this field, taking an altruistic view, that the Hong Kong University can at present and for the next few years perhaps be of the greatest benefit to China. Nor is it surprising that this is the department which from the first attracted and still noticeably attracts the greatest number of students.
28
. A few Civil Engineers produced by the University will continue, as now, to find employment in various capacities in the Colony and also in Malaya. But as regards China proper we consider that the University should frankly face the fact that it is acting with no ulterior motives in its attempt to supply the engineers that are so urgently needed for developments of all kinds.
29
. We would go a stage further and suggest that the post-graduate training required should be deliberately provided in the Colony to such students from China in the road making, waterworks and building offices of the Public Works Depart-ment without any thought of their subsequent employment in the Colony.
30
. We are fully aware of the tendency to-day in Europe to recruit University graduates for such openings as may lead to the higher posts in commercial engineer-ing, on the principle that such recruits will probably have a better knowledge of the underlying principles of their profession than the mere technician.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
31. But such graduation in Europe is, if not preceded, invariably followed (as well as accompanied during University vacations) by a rigorous practical training in -commercial workshops. The best of laboratories, we are satisfied, is for this pur-pose of little value compared with the discipline of real workshops. Skill of a high order may be attained in the former, but there cannot be the discipline and the constant economic precautions against wastage that the workshop provides.
32
. And it is just here that, in our view, the University fails. The graduates who have profited by local practical training are found to be almost entirely non-Chinese ; and even the Chinese graduates if they go to Europe readily accommodate themselves to the environment of dock or factory. What the University's founders could not be expected to foresee was that the Chinese undergraduate during vaca-tion or the Chinese graduate after finishing his course will not take orders in Hong Kong from an uneducated foreman; and that that foreman will not give orders to that student, whether in the two large Docks or in the Railway shops or any-where else. It is seldom safe to generalise in this way, but this conclusion is forced upon us from the unanimous evidence of those who know.
33
. The other factor which the founders of the University could not foretell was the growth in recent1 years of capable rival institutions in China proper which not only provide an adequate, if not perhaps an equivalent, training at about one-fifth of the cost, but moreover have in many cases the advantage of benevolent support from elsewhere, particularly from the United States.
34
. As has already been indicated, those engineering students who after graduation have profited by the generosity and far-sighted policy of certain firms and institutions, and have undergone an apprenticeship in the United Kingdom have, according to our information, fully justified the experiment. But their total number has only been fourteen, and two of these are not of Chinese race. Incidentally we observe that out of this total nine have taken electrical training, four mechanical, and one civil.
35
. We advise that this system should be greatly expanded if this is possible, but this means that there must be constant personal contact with the English engineer-ing firms and their representatives in Hong Kong and China- We consider that Hong Kong will have done its proper share in the process by bringing the students as far as graduation, and that it is for the Imperial interests concerned to be persuaded to provide, as at present but to a greater degree, the practical workshop training whereby the objects in view can be attained. But Hong Kong University should endeavour to set aside funds for at least one two-years' scholarship to England in order to point the way to others, and to have means for bringing on some of its more brilliant men for eventual use on its own teaching staff.
36
. From what has been said it will be clear that we consider that the students selected for such a training should, apart from those required by the University itself, be such as will probably carry the "little leaven" of British engineering back into China proper rather than those who propose to earn their living in Hong Kong.
37
. We do not consider that this in any way invalidates our previous conclu-sions (a) that the Engineering Faculty should continue and (b) that its pretensions and cost should be restricted. It is clear that there is still a vast need for engineer-ing knowledge in China and it is important to retain the present framework of the Faculty ready for the expansion which a closer contact with China (and a greater realization by her of the advantages which Hong Kong University can offer) may well bring in their train. It is tempting from the immediate practical point of view to suggest that the present expenditure on the Faculty could be better employed in providing students with an engineering degree in an English provincial University with all the facilities for practical training on the spot. But there is the language difficulty; there is the danger of complete loss of touch with Chinese life and senti-ment; and there is the vital consideration of prestige.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
Medical,
38. It might seem at a first glance that much that we have said in relation to the Engineering Faculty will apply with equal force to the Medical Faculty. There were the same ideals of the founders to give an awaking China the benefits of Western science; there have been the same unforeseen developments of efficiently conducted rival institutions in China proper; and there has been, but even more markedly than in the case of Engineering, that same diffidence on the part of graduates to take their knowledge into China.
39
. It is therefore clear that, if our recommendations in the two cases are not only different but almost antithetical, some justification for such a view will be called for.
40
. We need not dwell upon the fine traditions of the old Hong Kong Medical College in the days before it became merged in the infant University. But we maintain that the present general standard of medical knowledge and practice in the Colony is today a very high one; and that this is very largely due to the presence in our midst of the Medical Faculty of the University. It is not only that in the three clinical Professors the Colony possesses consultants of a very high order; what private practitioners and Government doctors would alike admit is that the University provides a stimulus and an atmosphere which could ill be spared.
41.
Medical graduates of the University are registrable under the General Medical Council and we consider that the periodical scrutiny carried out by represen-tatives of that Council must be of great value to the Faculty, and that the prestige of such a recognition is not to be despised. In such circumstances we will not be expected to say anything about the course of instruction, except to record the fact that it seems to be universally agreed that, clinically speaking, the doctors turned out by the University may be considered to be thoroughly well trained.
42.
We have carefully considered the question of what becomes of all those highly trained doctors. From all sides we have been told that private practice in the Colony is reaching saturation point and it has even been suggested to us that further local registration of Hong Kong graduates (except for the few required by the University itself or by the Government) might well be restricted or withheld until, say, five years after graduation. With the same end in view it has been urged that by some means or other more students from China proper should be induced to take the course; and, what is even more difficult, to return to China after graduation.
43 . As regards local over-crowding of the profession, we would remark that judged by European standards the ratio of practitioners to population is still quite small. The important factor is of course the adherence of a large part of the population to Chinese harbalism. Such adherence is diminishing and surely must diminish further with the increased supply of modern-trained doctors. We cannot believe that anyone will deplore such a process-
44. We feel, however, that the high standard attained by the product of Hong Kong University would do more for the prestige of the Colony if larger numbers reached the Chinese educational centres, and while, to a great extent, the recruitment of medical students and their ultimate destinations should be left to the ordinary law of supply and demand, we think that some encouragement should be given by scholarships to students from central and north China who would, we presume, return to their birth-places. Given this encouragement for a start we are assured that parents and institutions in China will in time realize that we can give value for money.
45 . We have already suggested that the whole Colony derives benefits from the academic atmosphere of the Medical Faculty. No one can teach a subject
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
without keeping in touch (more so than tKe busy practitioner) with the latest know-ledge on his subject. And we have evidence that, there is even a certain amount of something like research, which is all to the good. We would however give our opinion that there are not enough funds at present for research in its full modern sense, which of course involves training of a very special kind and comparative freedom from teaching duties. If some benefactor will endow such an activity there is an ample field, but we do not think that the University as at present constituted should expand in this direction.
46
. The cost of the Medical Faculty for the month of January 1937, taking the same basis of calculation as in the case of Engineering, was just over 116,000. The total number of students in the same month was 129.
47
. We have given much consideration to the question of the relationship between the three clinical Professors and tihe Government Medical Service- The present situation is in the nature of a compromise resulting from discussions over a long period of years. The University has sought in this, as in other matters, to retain inviolate its independence of the Government. On the other hand the teach-ing of the students must necessarily be given in the wards of a hospital which is under Government control.
48
. This anomaly has in the past led to some friction and the compromise of giving the clinical Professors a certain number of wards and making them theoretical-ly Government servants by Gazette notice and paysheet adjustment has accentuated the anomaly and is open to the criticism of wastefulness. But from the University's point of view the system does not work badly and the difficulties of the past seem to have been resolved, to a very great extent, by the compromise arrangement made in 1930. By selection from the out-patients the clinical Professors arrange for those cases most suitable for the purposes of tuition to be allocated to their wards, and in practice the Government doctors show great consideration for the wishes of the Medical Faculty.
49
. We have given much consideration to recommendations which have been put before us (both from inside and outside the University) that the clinical Professors and the Medical teaching staff of the University should be Government servants, i.e. members of the Government Medical Service whose duties would be mainly professorial. We understand that in Singapore, mutatis mutandis, such a system is in existence and works efficiently; but there the Medical College is, we under-stand, purely a Government Institution designed for the production of doctors for service in that territory only.
50
. It has been argued that not only would this lead to less overlapping, better organization and fuller use of Government institutions by the University, but also to some economy and wider opportunities for members of the Government Medical Service generally. We feel however that this would be a retrograde step to take-There would not, we are satisfied, be any real economy in staff inuring to either the University or the Medical Service; and for many intangible reasons we feef that the atmosphere of, and the attitude of mind engendered by, a Government service are incompatible with the traditions of a University. In view of the distinguished nature of the support given to this proposal it has merited the very earnest con-sideration which we have devoted to it, but we have satisfied ourselves that it would not be in the larger interest of the University to follow up these recom-mendations, and that the compromise system, which was evolved to meet the clinical requirements, imperfect though it may be, should be left untouched.
51
. Although we make no detailed recommendation, we consider that economy would result to either Government or University by the amalgamation of the University School of Pathology and the Government Bacteriological Institute, and we see no insuperable objection to this fusion. A further amalgamation deserving of close study is between the Biology Department and the Government's Botanical Department.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
52. We turn now to the vexed question of consultant practice. Representa-tions have been made to us that the actual practice of the clinical Professors has not always been in accord with Statute No. 3, Section 11, of the University Ordinance. On the evidence before us we are of the opinion that the continuance of consultant practice by the clinical Professors is in the best interest both of the public of the Colony and of the University. But we re-affirm the importance of strict adherence to the spirit as well as the letter of the rule govern-
ing consultant practice embodied in the University Ordinance, which reads as
follows :—
" Professors and lecturers whose services are exclusively at the disposal
of the University shall not, during the tenure of their appointments, engage in professional practice except in a consultative capacity and with the approval of the University Council."
Arts.
53
. The Arts Faculty seems to us to have attached itself like some half-un-wanted stepbrother to those two scientific Faculties which, to the founders at least, gave such promise of a sturdy manhood. It was felt no doubt that the materialism of Medicine and Engineering should be offset by a course which should include Ethics and Philosophy and the humanities generally. Later on the Chamber of Commerce was induced to contribute towards the support of a department where Economics and something like Accountancy could be taught (this contribution has ceased, but the department goes on). And finally a Chinese School was founded to carry on the tradition of China's antique culture. Meanwhile the Government Education Department seized the opportunity of the existence of a University and was provided with a course of training for the most promising material from its secondary schools to become teachers in Government and Aided schools.
54
. There had probably been a vague idea that some of the Arts graduates would in time emerge as political leaders in China. That dream, we understand, lias almost entirely failed to come true up to the present, and we doubt if Nanking's recent decision to admit Hong Kong graduates to her examinations for official posts will materially improve matters; and it appears that the Arts degree is now con-sidered to be little more than the crowning of Hong Kong's secondary education for those whose parents can afford it, together with a certain number from Malaya and the Dutch East Indies.
55
. So long as this is frankly recognized, we consider that there is much to be said for such an ideal. We would go further and say that an engineer will be a better engineer and a doctor will be a better doctor by social intercourse during his training with students in a non-technical Faculty. A virile School of English and a virile School of Chinese are obvious necessities in a University such as this. And it is worth recording here that the Arts Faculty shares with one or both of the other Faculties the Departments of Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and Biology.
56
. Bearing in mind this aspect of the Arts Faculty being a continuation of the general education provided in the Colony's secondary schools, we feel strongly that a closer liaison with the Education Department of the Government is desirable.
57
. The Director of Education is ex officio a member of the Senate, but, apart from Matriculation standards, it is difficult to see how the Medical and Engineering Faculties can be his concern. On the other hand if there is to be a unified general education in the Colony it would seem desirable that he should have a place in the Arts Faculty. The Government Medical Department has, we under-stand, a representative in the University's Medical Faculty, so that the principle is not a new one; in the Arts Faculty the justification seems to us even stronger.
58
. To strengthen that liaison we consider that steps should be taken to implement the University's authority, under section 4 (7) of the Ordinance, to have
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
some say in the pre-graduate education of the Colony. If the Arts Faculty of the
University is to become less self-contained so also must the Government's Education Department.
59
. In particular it seems essential that the Chinese School at the University should become less of a watertight compartment than at present. We contemplate the teaching of Chinese in the Colony, and the relation of that teaching to English studies, as a well thoughtout and unified system reaching from the elementary school to University graduation.
60
. On the basis of calculation already employed in the other Faculties the cost of the Arts Faculty for the month of January 1937 was over $ 14,000 and the total number of students in the Faculty in the same month was 114.
61
. It is not easy for us to criticize such a thing as a curriculum but we are satisfied that there is need of rigorous pruning in this Faculty as soon as this can, without injustice to the existing staff, be accomplished. We have been constrained to think that as at present constituted the Faculty is following a 'curriculum not altogether suited for its "clientele". We feel that it has been modelled too closely on the lines of an English University, and that this induces an atmosphere of un-reality. Many of the courses can have no real interest or final meaning for Chinese, and we are extremely doubtful whether the Department of Commerce can justify its existence. The courses given therein (particularly in the subject of Ac-countancy) ibear no real relation to the actual practice of commerce in China, where development of joint-stock companies lags behind and where few busines organiza-tions have been developed beyond the size which can be controlled by members of a single family.
62
. We are also conscious of a certain lack of co-ordination in the Arts Faculty. At a later stage of this Report we will criticize the existing practice of annually appointed Deans; and it is in this Faculty that the need both for internal discipline and for a consistent policy seems to us to be chiefly felt.
63
. Even more than in the Engineering Faculty, we feel that there are far too many full Professors in this Faculty.
64
. The Arts Faculty Department of Education as at present run seems to us to be a very expensive method of turning out a few qualified teachers, and a scrutiny of the time-tables concerned only confirms that view- We refrain from further comment except to say (a) that here even more than with the rest of the Faculty the need of close liaison with the Government Education Department is necessary —if only because the Government provides the cost of the training of many of the students concerned; (b) that this Department seems to us to be much too self-contained and too independent of the rest of the Faculty; and (c) that a Professor of Education is wholly unnecessary once the subject-groups are settled and that an efficient Master of Method available for practical training is all that is required.
65
. The Chinese School seems to us to have promise of a vigorous future under its able Professor. Considering its potential utility, its cost is not extravagant. It deserves every support and encouragement, and its expansion would provide a fair ground for endowments from well-wishing Chinese benefactors. The same is true of the Chinese Library which we understand needs considerable enlarge-ment. If the approach were properly made we feel sure that the sympathy of the Chinese, who alone are concerned, could be enlisted for this purpose.
66
. Throughout our inquiry we have kept in mind the primary object of the University to establish contact with China and to provide something of value to China. Most Universities worthy of the name will be found to have established in process of the time some special reputation for a particular course of training or even for a particular habit of mind. And we have been led to consider what particular contribution to knowledge could best be made by a University in such a unique geographical and political situation as Hong Kong.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
67.
The answer is not far to seek. On the one side is China at last showing signs of becoming politically vertebrate, floundering between democrary and dicta-torship, trying to omit all the intervening evolutionary stages- On the other hand a Crown Colony with all the constitutional safeguards of political science (except the ballot-box) clearly defined.
68.
The time may not be ripe and certainly the funds are not yet available. But we have visions of an Arts Faculty that would specialise in Political Theory, not as something as dead as an axiom of Euclid, but more in its historical and evolutionary aspect. Lecturers would be invited from Chinese Universities to keep that side of the historical question in view. Every few years there could even perhaps be a course of lectures from someone from England with sufficient amplitude of mind to realise what was expected of him. Above all there should be that complete freedom of thought and freedom of discussion which is as vital as fresh air where a University is concerned.
If such a dream could even partially be realised it is difficult to see what might not be the consequences on Asia and on -civilization.
Salary Scales.
69. After careful consideration we have come to the conclusion that the scale of salaries recommended in the Gollan Report of 1929 was needlessly high. We have reached that conclusion 'keeping well in mind the cost of living in Hong Kong, the standard of living which it is desirable for a University staff to maintain and the problem of recruiting. The Gollan scale was:—
(1)
Vice-Chancellor :—￡2,400 per annum.
(2)
Registrar:—￡1,100 per annum, rising by ￡50 annually to ￡1,450.
(3)
Professors:—￡1,100 per annum, rising by ￡50 annually to ￡1,450-
(4)
Readers:—￡850 per annum, rising by ￡50 annually to ￡1,100.
(5)
Senior Lecturer in English :—￡750 per annum, rising by ￡40 to ￡950.
(6)
Junior Lecturer in English :—￡600 per annum, rising by ￡40 to ￡680.
(7)
Lecturers in General:—￡700 per annum, rising by ￡40 to ￡900.
70. At the present time members of the University staff are paid on the Gollan scale less 10%, so that the effective scale of the above salaries at present is :—
(1) ￡2,160
(2) ￡990-45-1305
(3) 990-45-1305
(4) 765-45-990
(5) 675-36-855
(6) 540-36-612
(7) 630-36-810
71 . The following particulars of remuneration in Universities in Great Britain are of interest and give the average salary for the various grades :—
Total number in Average Great Britain. Salary.
Professors 842- ￡1,094
Readers, Assistant Professors and
independent Lecturers 364 661 Lecturers 1,382 471 Assistant Lecturers and Demonstrators. 831 310 Others 251 383
3,670
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
72. It is worth noting that of those professors no less than 192 receive less than ￡950, 221 professors are on the mark ￡951/￡1,000, 75 on the mark ￡1,001/￡1,100 and 123 ￡1,101/￡1,200; that is to say that, of the total of 842 given above, only 231 receive salaries of over ￡1,200 per annum.
73
. It must be noted that members of the University staff are provided with living accomodation or given a housing allowance in lieu, and draw other allowances of appreciable monetary value. Further it is perhaps justifiable to point out that Hong Kong does not obtain and, in fact, does not require the University professor of such exceptional academic attainments as might claim emoluments on the scale paid for the leading professorial posts in the United Kingdom.
74
. Except for the consolidation of the existing 10% deduction, we do not propose any alteration in pay for the existing staff. Nor do we wish to suggest a hard and fast scale to be applied in the future. For future recruits the basis of remuneration should be determined by:—
(a)
academic qualifications,
(b)
age; and the level of salaries currently paid in the United Kingdom should be a suf-ficient guide in arriving at a fair remuneration, with compensating allowance made for residence abroad and consequent separation from academic circles at home. In any case we feel that there are obvious objections to settling, as at present, a flat scale of salaries for all Professors in the several Faculties. We suggest also that in future appointments a slower scale of increment should be applied than has been the practice in the past, so that as a general rule a Professor would not attain his maximum salary until about the age of 50. In passing we note with ap-preciation that recent appointments to the University staff have been made on a
lower basis than the Gollan scale, and that able recruits have been obtained on this basis.
75 . We have the following comments to make on specific salaries:—
The Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering and the Instructor in Workshop Practice both seem to us to be far too highly remunerated for the work they are carrying out, and the former post is one that could in our opinion very well be filled by a graduate of the University.
76
. We are of opinion that the gradual process of arriving at the reduced staffing which we have suggested in earlier paragraphs and at the more economical remuneration which is implicit in the two preceding paragraphs could be accelerated by some scheme of grants to supplement their respective superannuation fund ac-cumulations in the case of those older professors who may themselves be desirous of retiring and with whose services the University may be willing to dispense.
77
. Having regard to the effect which continued residence in the semi-tropical climate of Hong Kong may have on the individual it is proposed that all future terms of service should lay it down that the age at which a professor should normal-ly retire will be 55 with the proviso that should the University require his services he will not be released until 60.
Organization.
78 . Although we are clearly empowered by our terms of reference to state our views on such subjects as organization and interior discipline, it is with some diffidence that we, as outside observers, broach such questions. In mitigation it is perhaps justifiable to observe that all four members of our Committee, even though. it is a Government Committee, are in fact actually on the Council of the University, and therefore not only "Members of the University" as defined in Statute 2 of the University Ordinance, but also have a place in that body (section 11 (2) of the Ordinance) which is described as having in its care "the government and control of the affairs of the University''.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
79. We have not inquired as to the model or models upon which the constitu-tion of the University, as set out in the Ordinance quoted, was based; but we would suggest that the requirements of such an institution, separated by ten thousand miles from the academic traditions and atmosphere of the United Kingdom, may very well be wholly different from the requirements of a University in England. And we would say at once that in our opinion the existing constitution is too "democratic" and too cumbrous for local needs.
80 . According to section 8 (1) of the Ordinance the Vice-Chancellor:—
'' shall be the chief administrative officer of the University, and shall have such powers and duties as the Council shall assign to him"
So far as we are aware the Council has never defined those powers or those duties and the Statutes are silent on this point. It would indeed seem that his statutory powers are limited to a single vote, liable to be overruled by the majority, in Senate, Council and Court. We would suggest that he should be given definite authority to give orders to his staff and such statutory powers as would ensure, without further ado, that those orders are obeyed.
81. As regards the Senate, we are strongly of the opinion that its sphere should be rigidly confined to academic matters and that all else should be liable to be ruled, under Statute, to "be out of order. This would seem to be implicit under the specific terms of seventeen of the eighteen paragraphs of Statute 10, but the wrhole of these are nullified by the very wide terms of paragraph 8 of that Statute, which reads :—
"To discuss and declare an opinion on any matter whatsoever relating to the University''.
The simple deletion of that paragraph would in our opinion be of great advantage to the discipline of the University.
82 . Even though the question may in practice only very rarely arise we consider that the present almost invulnerable status of the members of the staff ensured by Statute 17 of the Ordinance might easily be dangerous. The machinery for removing an incompetent lecturer, for example, whatever may be the terms of his original agree-
ment, seems to us to be unnecessarily cumbrous under that Statute; and we consider that the publicity entailed by the existing necessity of taking such a case before a body such as the full Court is undesirable. The individual concerned must be fully entitled to appeal against any such decision; but the decision, we are satisfied, should original-ly lie with the Council, or even with the Vice-Chancellor subject to the Council's ‧confirmation.
83 . A further point under the same Statute presents itself. Apart from lunacy or something like criminal misconduct, the only "Good Cause" which can be shown seems to be the rather vague "actual incapacity". We do not fully under-stand the meaning of this term but it seems at least arguable that incompetence, indolence, indiscipline, and a number of other undersirable characteristics could never be quoted as a grounds for removal. We consider that this should be remedied and that no member of the staff should feel that he is invulnerable until retiring age.
84. The periodical election of Deans of the Faculties under Statute 3 (5) appears to us to Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
Miscellaneous.
85. We have been conscious throughout our inquiry that the old tradition of China in the matter of the aim and object of education still to a great extent persists even in such a modern environment as that of the Hong Kong University. By this we mean the tradition that the passing of a difficult examination is the ultimate goal, and that on the strength of such an achievement the successful scholar may expect to face the rest of life with the equanimity which assured position and a steady in-come secure. We do not pretend that our graduates are like those aspirants to office in pre-Revolutionary China who continued, often until late in life, to strive for the material rewards of scholarship. But we are sensible of a feeling that graduation is an end in itself rather than a mere milestone on the road of prepara-tion for life.
86
. We are therefore of the opinion that the " University Employment Com-mittee ", which we observe to exist in the pages of the University Calendar, should come to life and set itself to devise means by which students might be helped to secure suitable employment after graduation. We think, moreover, that this Com-mittee might be improved by a wider personnel, such for example as representative Chinese officials, leaders in China's educational service, distinguished Hong Kong graduates, and the like.
87
. We are also conscious of what is perhaps another phase of the same tendency, namely that the University seems to lose touch too readily with its students after graduation. The University is still young and it is hardly to be expected that there will yet be much in the way of sentimental attraction. But we feel that any-thing which can be done to foster " Alumni Associations " cannot fail to bear fruit. It is chiefly so that fresh students can be attracted; and the time might even come when such graduates might be disposed to give practical effect to their loyalty by combining to provide scholarships or in many other ways- But the loyalty must first be there.
88
. As regards the recruitment of teaching staff we cannot but feel that the University has become too stereotyped in its methods; there are whole-time lecturers recruited from home for life; there are some whole-time lecturers recruited for a short term of years; there are local part-time lecturers; and there are a few Hong Kong graduates. We do not wish to say more than that certain other avenues are at least worthy of exploration :—(a) interchange of teachers with the leading Chinese Universities; (b) temporary employment of some of the lecturers sent out to China by the "Universities' China Committee"; (c) arrangements with certain local mis-sionary bodies (notably the Jesuits) who may have persons fully qualified for lectureships, etc. *
89
. In our opinion "'Study Leave" has sometimes been accorded in the past with too little consideration. There should, for example, obviously be safeguards to prevent an officer of the University obtaining at its expense certain qualifications and, by his early resignation, reaping the benefits himself; we understand that Government servants are more strictly bound in this respect than the University staff. But apart from this we feel that for Hong Kong the initial qualifications required should generally suffice without the expense of further long courses of study in England.
90
. We recommend that the Finance Committee should carefully scrutinize the existing rules regarding passages. The number of children to be carried at the University's expense may need definition; and we think that it is possible that there are cases where the grant of a Second Class passage instead of First Class might not be inconsistent with the dignity of the University.
91^ We recommend that in future no benefaction in the form of a new building should be accepted unless it is accompanied by an adequate endowment for its main-tenance and upkeep.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
92. In our recommendations on the subject of the various Faculties we have tried to emphasize our opinion that the true vocation of the University is, its founders realised, the training of students from China. Unless this aim is kept steadfastly in view we are satisfied that nothing of lasting value can be achieved.
Two candidates are at present selected periodically in Yunnanfu for scholar-ships, and we are given to understand that when this takes place it is regarded as an event of the ftrsfc magnitude in the educational life of the province.
We should like to see the same in Hankow and Tientsin and Amoy and a num-ber of places. (We exclude Shanghai as being too analogous to our own Colony). We have an ultimate vision of an annual influx of say 25 of such students, which would require an annual outgoing on scholarships of about $100,000, which should, if our recommendations are loyally accepted by the University, be available in course of time. We are not so pessimistic as to think that such a vision is unattain-able.
93 . We desire to express our gratitude to the Vice-Chancellor and the staff of the University who have without fail given us all the information that we could desire. In particular the Registrar, Mr. W. B. Finnigan, has been unsparing in providing us with data on a large scale.
94. Mr. J. H. B. Lee has performed his duties as Secretary with tact and efficiency. We have made him work long hours of overtime both on week days and at week ends. Miss Budden of the Colonial Secretary's Office has been given a good deal of additional typing in the preparation of material for this Report, and has done it well.
N. L. SMITH, (Chairman).
SHOUSON CHOW, )
J. R. MASSON, !‧ Members.
A. MORSE, j
HONG KONG,
March, 1937.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
this University during the past few years, we cannot help reflecting seriously upon the disappointing condition of Chinese studies in this Colony, (p. 3)
... The teaching of narrow patriotism, 'the last refuge of scoundrels/ and nationalism must be rooted out from all schools' curriculum. We, as educa-tionists, must see that education is directed towards internationalism rather than nationalism, and philanthropy rather than patriotism, and that the chil-dren are taught the bestiality of war and the nobility of peace. Above all, we must develop in the young mind the idea of International Socialism, (p. 11)
(d) Fr. G. Byrne, The Problem of Education in Hong Kong7, 8 (November 1933), 13-18.
[Quoting the first Report of G.N. Orme, living's successor] 'Our task then is to obtain an adequate and qualified staff and a suitable curriculum: as regards private schools to give such assistance as we may without unduly limiting their freedom.' Orme then dwells on the temptation for parents, teachers and pupils to make of the school a short cut to the office stool, from which it follows that 'the foundation of the pupil's life, which can only be based on an understanding of his mother tongue, will be deserted for the more profitable study of English, and second, external results will be sought in preference to real mental and moral progress.' To be noted that 'whereas the opinion of a doctor is readily accepted as a test of health, the opinion of a teacher carries little weight as a test of education; yet it should form the true test.' We can only say that if the teacher can once deserve and command the confidence of the public, this test will be possible and we shall be near a solution of the problem.
The 'Pari-Passu' System
To meet the dual language demand, whether it be the outcome of 'com-mercial' necessity or of cultural aspirations, the pari-passu system was adopted. This meant that at an early stage the pupil mixed up parsing and analysis with the pictorial beauty of the characters. The results do not seem to have been happy. I quote from the memorandum of Mr. Woo, drawn up two years ago: 'The inconsistency of the system lies in this that, whereas a student is not admitted to an English class unless his knowledge of Chinese reaches a certain standard, he is not bound to use his endeavours to improve his knowledge of Chinese after he has been admitted to an English class, although he is expected to attend a Chinese class at the same time.'
After his admission a student may, and usually does, devote his real energy to his English studies. Neither teacher nor pupil takes any interest in a Chinese class. On the part of the pupil his attendance in the Chinese school is a necessary evil which must be put up with. On the part of the teacher all his energies are devoted to the enforcement of discipline which he can only attain by submitting to the will of the pupils.'
Since its institution it would seem that the Junior Examination had a good deal to do with the orientation of the Secondary School curriculum. In 1924, as we saw, Mr. Orme considered a suitable curriculum a problem of the future. This year has killed the Junior and proposes a wider type of curriculum. What will be the result?
The Core of the Problem
But the core of the problem seems to be rightly placed by Mr Orme in the
character of the teacher and his methods rather than in the actual books which the scholar puts aside, not altogether regretfully, with the label taught...
. . . The further question arises 'should the task of learning the Chinese language so that a Chinese boy of 18 might acquire the same proficiency in his language as an English boy of 18 in his, really demand an extra four years of study?' It would seem that many modern educationalists among the Chinese answer the question in the negative. They contend that it was so, owing to faulty methods of teaching, but whilst making due allowance for the charac-ters versus an alphabet of 26 letters, there should not be such a disproportion.
Hong Kong has been faced with these problems since the optimistic days of the [eighteen] fifties. She is still faced with them. From time to time, she bestirs herself, yawns, examines the curriculum; puts a new coat of paint on her schools. When the paint wears off with the lapse of years, she discovers that the old legend had never really been effaced. There is still an education problem. Will it ever be solved? Or must each generation discover an Einstein-ian solution in multiplying its education factors by the square root of minus one? Such, in a nut shell, is the Hong Kong problem of education which we offer to your discussion this evening.
(e)
W.J. Dyer, 'The English Language in Local Education', (January 1939), 13-15.
.. . In the early years no subject should be taught in English except English. During four years with efficient teaching pupils should be able to learn sufficient English to allow them to read ordinary books and newspapers, to converse in and write simple English, and if necessary to pursue further courses using that language as the medium of instruction. A typical pupil's school career would then follow this course: up to 10 years of age a primary course in his own language, with possibly simple oral English included in the last two years; he would then proceed to the post-primary or Secondary course commencing with four years in which English would be included as a subject, but all instruction would continue in Chinese; for the next three years, with an appropriate transition period, he would receive instruction through the medium of English, at the end of which he would sit his School Leaving Certificate, his final year at school would be in preparation for a University entrance examination.
(f)
Wu Hei Tak, 'Education as a Business', (January 1939), 35-40.
.. . The English reading public of this Colony may be kept ignorant about this, but any educated Chinese has only to turn to his daily newspaper, and he will find a whole sheet full of advertisements, not for Metro-G-M., or of the Tiger Balm, but of SCHOOLS!...
Nearly every school, from the biggest to the smallest, has its advertise-ments, and the smaller the school, the bigger the type used .. . To begin with, they all crown their names with a string of titles, so as to impress ignorant parents with their qualifications, just as a new graduate does with his B.A. These titles are usually the names of the different authorities where they have registered. These authorities are usually the Board of Education in China and the Committee for Overseas Chinese Affairs .. . Some schools even lengthen their titles with an obvious and unnecessary one, the Hong Kong Education Department. These titles mean or hint that pupils from these schools can go back to China to study after they have finished school. However, these titles are quite worthless, for even the smallest school, which occupies a flat of two rooms, can get its name registered.
... Great care has been taken to choose the names of these money making institutions. An ordinary school occupying one storey of a flat would call itself a college...
... The usual salary for a teacher in such a school is about one-third of that of the government schools. But, owing to the growing number of unemployed people, and the large influx of unemployed educated people from China as a result of the war, even this humble rate is reduced. I am told by one of these unfortunate employees that an undergraduate from the National Ching Hua University is being exploited at a salary, or better, wages, of $5 per month, excluding board and lodging. Another extreme case is that a certain M.A., whether he is genuine or not, is working at $40 per month. This means that some of them are working from 9 to 4 every day, shouting to 30 or 40 pupils, at a 'salary7 worse than that of a shop assistant or even of some amahs.
I wonder whether modern communists would call such teachers as ex-ploited by these schools proletariat or not.
... What is the result of this misery? Many of these teachers try to live up to the genteel world by teaching after school hours. They become private tutors or teachers in night schools. Thus they work for almost ten hours a day, with little time to rest, to say nothing of advancing . . . [their] own studies. Their knowledge becomes stale, and their work falls into a mechanical repro-duction of the bits of knowledge that they have picked up in their student days. Their sole object, like their employers, is money, but it is money for sheer existence. As for the pupils, they do not care whether they are really educated at all, and this is precisely the prevailing condition in at least half of the private schools in the Colony.
(g) T.C. Cheng, 'Changes in Local Vernacular Schools' (January 1939), 46-52 (Illus. 5.6).
-46-
CHANGES IN LOCAL VERNACULAR SCHOOLS.
Within the last twenty years there have taken place many changes and improvements in local vernacular schools. In this article, I am only trying to make a general survey of the development o￡ such schools from my own experience and observation.
Twenty years ago, the number of schools and students was much smaller than now. The schools then were very primitive and elementary. The most typical of these was 'the Hok Shuk (*pl?t). This type of school usually com-prised one teacher, and about ten pupils. The teacher who was in fact the founder, director and headmaster in one, was in nine cases out of ten an old classical scholar, often in straitened circumstances, whose only profession was teaching, and whose knowledge was entirely derived from the classics. The way the boys were educated was quite akin to that by which Tom Tulliver was educated by Mr. Stelling—" ... . With the same unerring instinct Mr. Stelling set to work at his natural method of instilling the Eton grammar and Euclid into the mind of Tom Tulliver
A Hok Shuk seldom occupied more than one flat of an ordinary house. This humble flat, however, served a two-fold purpose. It was not only a school but the teacher's home, subject to the noisy distractions of the nursery.
The range of subjects taught was definitely very limited. Besides reading, writing, and the reciting of Chinese Classics there was only a little arithmetic. No one ever dreamed of introducing such aesthetic subjects as singing and drawing into the Hok Shuk, and of course physics and chemistry were not known to the venerable teacher. Individual work and the spirit of co-operation which are strongly emphasized in modern classrooms, took a very unique form in the Hok Shuk. Thus you might see one pupil or another coming back to school earlier than usual in the morning to help the teacher's wife or daughter to sweep the floor or to boil some water.
Somewhat better than the Hok Shuk were the primi-tive small-scaled schools. These developed into the modern
Illus. 5.6 Extracts from T.C. Cheng, 'Changes in Local Vernacular Schools'.
— 47 ~
middle schools, while the Hok Shuks gradually died away. A school of this sort had a seven years' course. It was usually managed by less than five teachers (part-time teachers icnluded) and had only about sixty or seventy students. The whole school building occupied three large rooms with two, three, or even four classes packed into each. Therefore a teacher had to manage more than two classes at a time. This sounds ridiculous—any sensible person would admit, but it was actually the case though 1 hope it is now a thing of the past.
To quote an instance from my own life—When I first went to school, to one of this sort, there were altogether four classes in the room to which I belonged. I myself formed the sole pupil in the " first year class." My brother and five others comprised the " second year class " while ten others, the " third year class." The rest were the " fourth year class." There were altogether about thirty pupils in the room and all under the able management of one teacher. The arrangement of the lessons was as fol-lows : When the teacher was taking the " fourth year class," the " third year class " would be revising and learn-ing the old lessons by heart, and the " second year class " would be writing or composing short essays. And when the teacher was taking the " third year class," the " fourth year class " would be revising and the " second year class " would be still going on with writing, and so on. (In fact the time spent in school was mainly devoted to writing, memorizing and reciting, without making much use of the faculty of understanding.) As to me, I was simply nothing at all. The teacher seemed to ignore me completely. Quite contrary to to-day's idea of allotting seats to the students, I, the youngest and smallest, was deposited at the back of the room, always unseen and disregarded. There, I could do anything I liked except making noise or disturbing my neighbours. I usually spent some time in learning how to write by tracing the outlines of characters printed in books, but, to be frank, most of my time was spent in daydreaming. Sometimes, however, I managed to make myself noticed or seen by the teacher, and then he would tell a boy in cither of the three classes to stop writing or reading to come next to me and to teach me the " three-character classic"—my only text-book. (This book, con-taining only sentences of three characters, has quite deep philosophical ideas and is rather a pleasant book.) I was
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
-48-
to learn each sentence by heart with no explanations what-ever. But, just the same, I was expected to be able to recite them one or two days later. This I did accordingly, like a parrot. In fact I was very happy and willing too,. because, firstly, I had something definite and concrete to work upon and spend my time, and secondly, I thought that that was my sole duty and object in going to school.
Now this school which I first attended about seven-teen years ago was by no means a bad or depraved one. In fact, it was, as it is now, one of the best-known schools in the city, and I think I am quite justified in taking it to represent the average school of that time, and thence to-proceed to give my description of the school teachers, dis-cipline, and the subjects taught then.
As regards the teachers, they were almost every one un-^ worthy of the name of their profession. Their qualifica-tions were doubtful and their training inadequate. Unlike teachers nowadays who like to show off their strings of titles, the alma maters of the old days could seldom or never be detected. They seemed to have emerged from nowhere. Though they were educators themselves, yet most of them did not have any clear notion of what educa-tion was at all. To them education chiefly meant flogging, the causing of " sounds of the Ululantes " and the produc-ing of " glances of Tartarus." They were teachers of the " good old grind " type. They upheld what Mr. Dooley says in fun: "It does not matter very much what the children learn, so long as it is disagreeable enough." In-side the classroom, they knew nothing about methods of teaching; and they had no clear idea at all how to approach any new subject. The temper of the teachers often went to extremes. The old and feeble ones were dull and gloomy but easy-going. The younger ones, on the other hand, were harsh and unreasonable, though on the whole better and more energetic.
The discipline was severe. The students had to observe the " divine right " of teachers. What they said must be right and therefore obeyed. They never looked upon the students as beings who had characters and " selves." In their presence, the students must not be anything at all. Such shameful harshness never failed to create fear in the children's minds, and, with constant fear instilled into them,
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
- 49 -
obviously they could not understand the lessons as they ought. My own experience verifies this.
The teacher of arithmetic in my school was a very stern and unreasonable man. He knew nothing about the psychology of children or methods of teaching. One day, after explaining a new lesson to us, he asked me to do a problem on the board. I could not; I was caned and was told to stand up in front of the class while he went over the lesson again, expecting me to listen and understand this time. But—how could I be listening to him when I was sobbing and when my heart was burning inside with anger and hatred?—who could help feeling that I was wronged? However, I was told to do the sum again; I failed and received a second punishment. From that time onward, he kept a special eye on me and whenever he could, he would try to find fault with me, so that at the sight of him, fear would arise in my mind. In such a state, I was seldom able to understand him, and this again never failed to bring me punishment.
The subjects taught in the schools then were very iestricted. They were Chinese classics, literature and poetry, essay-writing, history, geography and a little fragment of elementary science, and English. With the exception of arithmetic, we had to recite almost everything that was taught. With regard to physical training, open air rest and play, drawing crafts work and other such subjects, the boys never had any idea of them. The schools then were all run on a small scale. They had neither play-grounds, nor a spare room for teachers, nor even a ping-pong table. But the fact was that playing, running and noises of all sorts within the schools were strictly prohibited, so that even paperwork done by the students during their spare time would be destroyed when seen, and the makers were liable to be punished—probably for not spending that little bit of precious time to recite more classics. Even during recess, which was after all ten minutes, we had to stay in the classroom. Only two at a time were allowed to go out to wash their hands, and then to return to the classroom. Such schools were no better than prisons!
To summarize, the schools fifteen or twenty years ago tended to produce shy, dull, sullen and gloomy youngsters with pale faces and weak physique, and with very little knowledge or common sense. They were far from sociable.
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
— 50 —
In fact, after the seven \ ears' schooling, they had nothing but inferiority complexes in them. They were slaves to others' ideas and were only fit to become followers and servants. They could never dream of taking the lead in anything. The definition that education is a preparation for life was definitely inapplicable to such schooling and training, for it was certainly after they had left school that they began to learn things, whether great or small, so as to adapt themselves to society.
However, these unsatisfactory results gradually drew the attention of the public, and with the increase of students and the desire of parents for more knowledge for their children, the general demand that local vernacular schools should be improved was rife. Thanks to the help, advice and guidance of able educationalists from the interior of China and returned students from abroad, changes were slowly brought about. In these changes, it was only natural that they should turn to Canton and other places in China for models and inspiration.
Since 1917, American educational thoughts and system have definitely exerted the major influence upon Chinese education. This was chiefly due to the stimulation caused by the wide and rapid expansion of American education in tne first decades of the present century, and also to the intimate relations that had existed between China and America for some years.
In 1921, the " New School System " was passed at the annual conference of the National Federated Provincial Educational Associations held in Canton. In the following year, the government, after careful consideration, adopted it. The keynote of this system is the American 6-3-3 plan. The primary school course takes six years, while the middle school course is divided between three years of general work and three years of vocational or college preparation, to be called junior and senior middle schools respectively.
As soon as this New School System was adopted there was much development both in quality and in quan-tity in the schools in China. But the influence of this system on the Colony was not noticeably felt until about the year 1927 when a few large middle schools began to take shape. These modern schools have always tried, as
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
— 51 -
far as the education department allows, to follow the cur riculum of the schools in China, using the same textbooks, and having the same subjects. *
With this change of the school system, there came also an entire change in the atmosphere of the school. The school no longer resembles a prison. The students now enjoy much more freedom than their predecessors. The teachers are all quite properly trained, and prove to be very efficient. Their attitude towards the stvidents is no longer severe and unreasonable, and the tie between the teacher and the pupil is close, and lasting.
Besides mandarin, many new subjects, which are neces-sary to the better development of the different faculties are introduced. Music, painting, handiwork, physical training and hygiene are among the new general subjects. In the middle school, however, the students have to touch upon such learned subjects as logic, psychology, ethics and biology, and in some, zoology and botany are also included in the svllabus.
Due to the many changes and reforms in these schools, it is only logical to suppose that the type of youngsters pro-duced by them should be quite different from that produced by schools fifteen or twenty years ago. This is really so, for the boys who come out from these schools are quite the opposite of their predecessors. They are lively and sportive. Nearly all of them take part in some sport, and are, therefore, physically strong and healthy. Due to the many activities thev have in school, such as concerts, de-bates, discussions, and meetings, etc., they are practically all sociable and energetic." As the range of subjects in school is extended, the knowledge acquired when they leave school is pretty wide. All these contribute to promote their social position in society to a higher level.
Now though the results of the New School System are satisfactory and up to a certain standard, yet 'hey can be improved. What I bring out in the following applies not only to local schools but al.=o to all the schools through-out China. My point is that the 6-3-3 P^an wastes too much of the students' time. This may seem to be a rash statement but it is based upon solid ground. When one examines the curriculum of the schools, one will realize where the defects lie. To furnish a concrete example, let us first take the subject, geography. During the six years
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
— 52 —
in the elementary school, a boy is first taught the geography of his locality, then that of the province he is in, then that of China and then generally that of the world. However, in his first two years in the junior middle school he has to learn the geography of China all over again—with further details, and similarly in his third year he has to learn the geography of the world again. Still, this seems not enough, for out of the three years in the senior middle school, the first two years are again devoted to the geography of China. Similarly the following half year is devoted to the geography of the world, while the remaining half year is spent on physical geography which is something entirely new.
Obviously, at least two points can be raised against this arrangement. Firstly, too much time is given to revi-sion; secondly, physical geography should not—in fact it cannot—be taught isolated from the other branches of geography. Similarly, the first point can also be applied to criticize the history syllabus as well as some others.
In mathematics, however, the defect takes another form. In the junior middle school, a student is supposed to have done experimental and solid geometry. But in the senior middle school, he has to learn the same things again,— the only difference being that this time he has to learn them through the medium of English. The apparent justi-fication and explanation for so doing is that Senior middle school students must learn more English. But is it worth while to spend two or three hours a week to learn a few geometrical terms? After all is there much English to be learnt in a geometry lesson? Why should we not openly and exclusively devote such periods to English? This would be more sensible.
I think I have made my point quite clear. Now there are two remedies to this. The first is to shorten the 6-3-5 plan to a 6-2-2 or 6-3-2 plan, the range and contents of the subjects taught remaining the same. But then the average age for students to enter the university is 16 or 17. Some educationalists may object to this, saying that this is too early an age to enter the university. The other remedy is to
w^tn some new
keep the 6-3-3 P^an subjects (such as astronomy, etc.) added to the curriculum. However this is a very serious question and is to be discussed by learned, experienced and serious educationalists.
T. C. CHENG.
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
22. Extracts from the Papers of Laneclot Forster, first Professor of Education, University of Hong Kong, in Rhodes House Library, Oxford University, Mss. Ind. Ocn. s.177,1-5.
Lancelot Forster came to Hong Kong at the very beginning of this period to be employed as an Education Officer, teaching at Queen's College. Later he became the first Professor of Education at the University and this fact might be related to Sir William Brunyate's ideas about Professors and about Teacher Education (see Evidence 9 above). Forster's papers provide an interesting commentary on the social, political and cultural aspects of the educational scene in Hong Kong in the inter-war period.
[Autobiographical]... After a month or so [in 1914, immediately after his first arrival as a Government Education Officer in Hong Kong] I came to the conclusion that the atmosphere of Queen's College was not on the whole very satisfactory. Two or three members of the staff seemed to yearn for the recess when they could satisfy their craving for the content of a whisky bottle, which in Hong Kong was exceedingly cheap to buy. As it is now fifty years since I encountered this, the names mean nothing — they were James, a Welshman, Birbeck, an Englishman, and first assistant Master, a Scotsman called Grant...
['Echoes of Hongkong and Beyond: the Giving of Presents']... It is an an idee fixe with the Chinese that every favour granted has its price, how-ever much Englishmen may strive to correct that mistaken belief. They share with Walpole the view that every man can be bought but just what that price is, it is difficult to determine in every case ...
. . . Another incident of this kind once took place in a Government secondary school. A youth who had been a prefect and was about to leave after sitting for his school certificate examination went to the Headmas-ter's office to pay his respects before departing. In doing so he expressed the hope that he had been successful in his recent examination, and accompanied his remarks with the movement of his hand across the desk presenting a five dollar bill to the Headmaster. Immediately the peaceful atmosphere of the office changed; consternation and indignation reigned. The erring youth was hurried out into the Hall whither the whole school was summoned and there he was publicly unfrocked as it were. His name was left on the prefect's board but a black line was out through it — the bar sinister branded him as an example and warning for other boys. The offence was, of course, doubly unpardonable for the youth first mistak-enly assumed that the Headmaster could be bribed, and second put his price at a ridiculously low figure. The friends of the prefect and the enemies of the Headmaster (and being a martinet he had many) said that the second offence was infinitely greater than the first.
[Reflections on the cause of the 1925 General Strike] .. . Not less but
more education, an education that touches not the select few, but the general populace, is what is needed ...
. .. The present noisy element consists of those who have been edu-cated but whose abilities are not engaged in productive occupations, because the economic and political progress of the country has not kept pace with the growth of western knowledge ...
... the Chinese in Hongkong are not governed by the British, they are governed by, and are loyal to Canton. In the course of eleven years residence in the Colony I have yet to meet a pure Chinese who said he was a British subject...
The fact is that Hongkong is merely a pied-de-terre both for British and Chinese residents. The former looks forward to his next leave and final retirement in England, the latter regards himself, like the former, as a temporary exile from his beloved home in Hongkong... The prosperity of the Colony is therefore due entirely to its natural advantages, a capacious land locked harbour capable of accommodating the largest ocean liners, and an unrivalled situation at the mouth of one of the most fertile and therefore most thickly populated river valleys in the world. The contact between the two races is for mutual gain — material gain. There is contact but no fusion, no community of thought or feeling ...
... The question is can the British Colony ever hope to counteract this [Soviet] influence [on China] by being something more than a commercial community, can it ever become a centre for the diffusion of British ideals and British culture, a place where an intellectual entente can be estab-lished. The attempt has been made. Schools, very efficient ones, have been established, a university has been founded, but in spite of that, there has been no conspicuous adhesion to the British point of view ...
[On a visit to Ping Shan in the nineteen thirties] . . . Our own visit would not have occurred had this been true [that the village was totally unaffected by changes and modern life], for the purpose of the journey was an inspection of a village school of which the elders were very proud and which had been sponsored by the YMCA in Hongkong. So seldom, however, is there any irruption upon the peaceful village life by a Euro-pean that they turned the occasion into a high festival. There were posters announcing our visit, the boys were in a sort of grey uniform and some of the girls would certainly have liked to be enrolled under the Girl Guide Banner. A small brass band, which made much noise if not much music, warned the village that something unusual was afoot...
. . . The school was held in the ancestral hall where the numerous tablets of several generations were suspended from the wall. In and around this temple were several rooms in which classes could be suitably accom-modated. There was space and air and cleanliness and order and an atmosphere of work.
The three R's were stressed, but in addition to that there were some
excellent drawings on the walls done by the pupils, whose control of the
paint brush is assisted by practice in painting 'characters' with the Chi-
nese pen or brush. Writing and drawing are very closely related in China,
and no exhibition of Chinese art is complete which does not contain
numerous examples of calligraphy ... The deftness of the Chinese fingers
which many attribute to the delicacy acquired through the manipulation
of the pen or brush39 in making 'characters', showed itself in neat ex-
amples of handwork, which were exhibited. There were baskets, woven
from the bamboo strips grown near at hand, and there were toys made
from wood, as well as various models made in clay. Another subject
which was taught with considerable emphasis was hygiene. The pictures
illustrating these lessons were clear and expressive, and certainly could
leave no doubt in the pupil's mind about the danger of food being infected
for example by flies ...
That this curriculum does not satisfy some parents who still yearn for the old classics, with their ethical teaching and who remain loyal to Confucius and Mencius, is proved by the fact that some ten children are sent daily to another village, where such teaching is still available in a private school.
Only one third of the children of the village attend School partly because of the economic stress but also because of the difficulty of securing suitable teachers. That the village is not altogether poor is proved by the fact that the annual feasts, such as Ching Ming, are marked by generous distributions of pork the cost of which amounts to a thousand dollars or more.
A teacher is paid 30 to 45 dollars [16$ = ￡1] per month but apart from poor salary, it is difficult, owing to distance from town, to induce suitable persons to go. A great deal is being done for physical health in the New Territory by Voluntary Associations, such as the St. John's Ambulance, and for agriculture, by the New Territory Agricultural Association, but the success of these societies depends upon the developed intelligence of the farmers and their families. The YMCA have started this experiment, and have also introduced the Mass Education movement as sponsored by James Yen40 — himself educated at St. Stephen's College and at Hongkong
139. Other observers, noting the Chinese appreciation of the pleasures of the table, would attribute the deftness of Chinese fingers to early familiarity with chop-sticks!
40. As Forster mentions, James Yen, the pioneer of mass education in China, was educated at St. Stephen's College and was an undergraduate at the University of Hong Kong. He won the King Edward VII Scholarship in 1913, but refused to continue his studies in Britain and, instead, after a short time in Europe, took up an undergraduate course at Yale University. On his graduation from Yale in 1918, he agreed to embark on social work among the China Labour battalions behind the lines in France, where his experience writing letters home to China for illiterate 'coolies' contributed towards his ideas of helping organize mass educa-tion in his homeland. At the end of the war, he returned to the United States to study for a
University, but of course there is vast scope for further voluntary effort, and there are many Chinese students who might now both in Hongkong and in the New Territory, do their share towards removing that state of ignorance, which is so serious an obstacle to any agricultural, industrial or social improvement.
23. Extracts from the Diary of T.J. Houston, Colonial Administration, Hong Kong, in Rhodes House Library, Oxford University, Mss. Ind. Ocn. s.141.
T.J. Houston was, in many ways, typical of the Government 'Cadets' in this period. He was born in Belfast in 1913 and educated at Queen's University, Belfast, and Christ College, Cambridge. He joined the Colonial Service in 1936 when he was posted to Hong Kong. He spent the obligatory two years in Canton learning the language and served in a number of middle-ranking administrative offices. At the surrender of Hong Kong he was serving as a gunner in the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Force, was captured and died in captivity on 24 December 1942. His diary contains much sharp observation and some (to say the least) conservative commentary.
Friday, 20th August, 1937: . . . Chinese clubs are series of private rooms luxuriously furnished. It's rather queer to Western eyes as the Chinese bring their mistresses and also there is an opium room which I saw but with the exception of the Governor every Cadet occasionally goes there. One finds out what the Chinese mind thinks of various legislative propos-als and generally acts on them...
Thursday, 26th August (Canton): .. . Met most of my tutors41 in the after-noon. They decide who takes me and rate is fixed by H.E. They get $HK15 for an hour a day a month and they generally do 6 hours a day and are affluent on 90 HK$ a month. The Hong Kong Government gives them a pension if they reach 60 which is rare as most of them smoke opium ...
24. Extracts from transcript of a tape-recorded interview with Dr K.S. Lo, 2 March 1982.
A second example of evidence gained via the 'oral history' approach, the extract below
Masters degree in History at Princeton. He returned to China in 1920 and, as Secretary for Public Education of the National Committee of the YMCA launched his campaign for mass education in the early 'twenties. See Howard L. Boorman (ed.), Biographical Dictionary of Republican China, Vol. IV (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), pp. 52-54.
41. These were language tutors. At this time, on first arrival Government Cadets spent at least one year in Canton learning Chinese.
465
offers insights into facts and opinions about life in the University in the 'thirties and about reactions to the Japanese invasion.
.. . I entered the University [of Hong Kong] in 1930 and graduated in 1934 ... I took what was called in those days Commerce. There was a Law and Commerce Department. So we were given a few subjects on Commer-cial Law, a little bit of Accounting, a bit of Economics—just a very general type of degree.
. . . From my own personal view, actually I didn't think I got very much out of my four years of [university] education, other than perhaps a liberal education. Certainly it helped to open my mind, improve my English (because we had to go through three years of English), and, also, there's the fact that, now you have earned a degree, there is far more honour, whether it's real or false. It gives you a certain confidence in yourself, and thaf s very important.
In those days we only had about 400 students in the entire University. And most came from the upper crust of the society. I would say that 90% of them were children from the wealthy families. There were about ten or twenty students studying there who came from China under some kind of provincial scholarship granted by the provincial government. And then there were quite a few students who came from Malaysia and Indonesia. Those who came from Malaysia or Indonesia also belonged to better off families. There were, if I remember correctly, no such things as bursaries. Scholarships were few and I remember that the better known ones were the Loke Yew Scholarship for the Malaysian students and some of the Provincial Government Scholarships for the students from China.
I was considered to be one of the very few students who came from the less well-to-to families. And my father used always to warn me about that. He said, 'Don't you go and mix with those students from wealthy families, because you just can't afford to go about with them.' And then he used a very good phrase which I still remember today. He said, T>on't talk about going out with them because, when you eat together, if he were to pay for the meat and you were to pay for the soy sauce, you can't afford it.' So that, somehow or other, gave me some kind of feeling of inferiority and, as a result, it stopped me from mixing with all the other students... I stayed at May Hall... But, anyway, I managed to make a few friends and, I'm proud to say, some of the friendships have lasted up until today...
Coming back to the students, let me tell you about some of the local students. In those days, boarding was compulsory, for the first two years at least. So all the local students had to stay in the hostel. And I knew quite a few of them, and one of them in particular. I won't mention his full name . . . Now, he came from a very wealthy family. Every weekend, you're allowed to go to your home. So, on Friday afternoon, his family would send a large car to pick him up, together with a chauffeur and an amah. The amah would go up to the room and pack all his dirty clothing and so
on, the laundry, and take it back with her. On Sunday night, when he comes back to the hostel, you have the same amah following him, carrying all his things back to his room, packing them away nicely. And during weekdays, among the Cantonese — they believe that it is very important that you should have some very good soup to go along with your meal, and that, in one way or another, it would serve as a tonic or lubricate your system, or something — so, two or three evenings a week, you have this family amah bringing soup prepared at home, pouring it out for this boy. You know we were sitting in the Dining Hall, so it was very conspicuous, because you find the amah with the long [pig] tail standing behind this boy, waiting until he had finished his special soup so that she could collect the dishes and take them back. He never shared the soup!...
In those days, the academic year ended with the calendar year. So I sat for the examination and then the term ended in December, before Christ-mas. And I started to work for Mr. Eu Tong-sen on 1st January...
After I came out to work, I sent for my two brothers [from Malaysia]. So they came and studied in King's College ... They complained that the English teachers there were always very haughty . . . They didn't like students who asked too many questions. People always say that Chinese students don't ask questions, but, in many ways, they were being discour-aged by those teachers...
... There was quite a lot of looting at the time of the Japanese invasion. Even right after the Japanese came in. And this is a very interesting social point. Before the War, there was a great difference between master and servant. A servant was never supposed to talk back to the master. A lot of these people who had been the underdogs took the opportunity of the change of society. They thought, 'You're no longer the master, because money doesn't mean anything now ...' So some old scores were settled. Revenge was taken. These groups of people — and even in those days there were some triad societies — took great advantage of the situation. In the chaos, they went round from door to door, shouting 'Sing Lei! Sing Lei!' (Victory, Victory!!). Of course, the Japanese, when they shouted 'Victory!' meant their military victory. But to the poorer Chinese, 'Victory' meant Today, I am over you at last. I have my victory over you.' So they would come and loot whatever they wanted. It went on for quite some time here .. /
25. Bernard H.K. Luk, 'Lu Tsu-Chiin and Ch'en Jung-Kun: Two Exemplary Figures in the 'Ssu-shu' Education of Pre-War Urban Hong Kong', in David Faure, James Hayes and Alan Birch (eds.), From Village to City: Studies in the Traditional Roots of Hong Kong Society (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1984), p. 120.
467
This brief extract from Bernard Luk's article may help to place the role of the more traditional school within Hong Kong's educational provision in better perspective.
On the ssu-shu in urban Hong Kong, Yuan Jou, an acute observer from Lingnan University, wrote in 1940 that these old-style private schools had always existed in large numbers, that they were small in size and privately owned, and could be found almost anywhere, especially in the Central and Western districts of Hong Kong Island. He estimated that Hong Kong probably ranked first among large Chinese cities in having so many ssu-shu.
Whether or not Hong Kong could claim this dubious honour, Yuan reported that in 1939, among the subsidized and 675 non-aided vernacular primary schools, many were in fact ssu-shu. This suggests that in the 1920s and 30's, there were in urban Hong Kong hundreds of ssu-shu with tens of thousands of pupils accounting for a sizeable share of the school popula-tion of the time. The ssu-shu was a significant quantitative as well as qualitative feature of Hong Kong education.
There existed in pre-war Hong Kong as yet no integrated and autoch-thonous school system. Although an eight-year Anglo-Chinese secondary school gradually came into being after the establishment of Hong Kong University in 1911 and the adoption of the first Education Ordinance in 1913, the majority of the schools followed a 6-3-3 (six years-three years-three years) Chinese pattern of the time. Some of these schools were in fact registered in Canton as well as in Hong Kong. And pupils who completed their senior secondary course often sought higher education in China. Many schools, too, operated on neither the eight-year, nor the 6-3-3 plan.
In this hodge-podge of a system, the ssu-shu enjoyed enviable flexibil-ity. Being constrained by no fixed curriculum it could adapt itself to meet the needs of all kinds of pupils — those aspiring for the eight year Anglo-Chinese school and those aiming at the Chinese middle school, as well as those who wanted only a few years of basic schooling.
The content of a ssu-shu education was often no more than the traditional basic literacy and rote memory of the Confucian Classics. Yuan observed that the curriculum of the ssu-shu consisted only of such works as the Four Books, the Five Classics, the Annotated Collection of Model Essays (ku-wen p'ing-chu), and the like. The standards were rather low, and the contents not at all progressive. Conservative parents sent their sons to these establishments in the expectation that they would learn in a few years how to read and write, how to keep simple accounts, and to acquire some of the Sages' teachings; before they were ready to learn a trade in the shops.
Thus, a ssu-shu course could be completed with great economy of time and money. A modern six-year primary school could not offer such an advantage.
26. The development of schools run by Chinese voluntary associations.
Below are descriptions of the educational initiatives taken by one very large and prominent voluntary association and one relatively small one.42 Readers may wish to 'read between the lines' messages about the role of the voluntary associations vis-a-vis the Hong Kong Government.
(a) Development of the Tung Wah Hospitals (1870-1960) compiled by the board of directors (1960-1961 XHong Kong: Tung Wah Hospitals, 1961) (translated from the Chinese).
Educational Expenditure of the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals was financed by Temples.
With the planning and encouragement of the Directors of the Tung Wah Hospital, improvements were made in the organization of the school system. As a result, the Tung Wah Free Schools became highly regarded in Hong Kong society.
In the tenth Ordinance of 1908, the Hong Kong Government announced that the Man Mo Temple was to be managed by the Tung Wah Hospital and specified that 'the capital of the Man Mo Temple should be used to support free schools in Hong Kong so that the Chinese would benefit by receiving education.' In other words, Tung Wah Free Schools were financed by temples, including the Man Mo, Tin Hau, Hung Sing and Kwong Fuk temples. At that time, there were fourteen Free Schools financed by the Man Mo Temple. On the other hand, the Tin Hau and Kwong Fuk temples were responsible for the expenditure of two Free Schools each. There were altogether sixteen Free Schools located in the Central District, Sai Ying Pun, Wanchai, and Yau Ma Tei, with a pupil population of 2,000. The schools were named after the sponsoring temple, for example, the Man Mo Free School, the Kwong Fuk Temple Free School, etc.
In 1910, when Lau Chu Pak was the chairman of the TWGH Board, eight bright pupils of Class A were selected to further their studies in Nam Wah College. Such a practice helped to motivate the pupils to study hard and provided poor pupils with a chance for more advanced education. In 1912, when the Republic of China was established, many schools still followed traditional methods. Subsequently, one after the other, schools began adopting new textbooks for teaching. But it was only in 1924, after
42. A record of another example of a small voluntary association, organized around the district of origin is included as Evidence 26 of Chapter 1. Lethbridge mentions a further type. The Chung Sing Charitable Society, originally known as the Chung Sing Opera Society, was founded around 1917 by the prominent merchant, Tsang Foo, and amongst its charitable enterprises, maintained a free school (H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 126).
the disruption caused by the Seamen's Strike, that all schools adopted the new system of class allocation.
In 1928, under the leadership of Chairman Tang Siu Kin, various im-provements to the school system commenced. Introduced by Fung Ping Shan, Chan Chiu Mei became responsible for evaluating the whole sys-tem. By the end of the year, when Chan Chiu Mei resigned from his post, Mr. Wong was employed as inspector of schools in charge of managing the Free Schools. Following the retirement of Luk Cheuk Man, the school ran by him and other merchants in Wong Nai Chung was taken over and managed by the Hong Kong Government. With the permission of the Secretary for Chinese Affairs, the school was granted to the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals and financed by the Man Mo Temple. In September, the school was named the Man Mo Temple No. 15 Free School. School fees which had been received for the months after September were returned. However, the school was so small that only 60 pupils were admitted. In order to accommodated more poor children, the Government agreed to allocate crown land and to subsidize the building of a new school in King Kwong Street. From 1929 onwards, the Government annually subvented the school with $800. This was the first Tung Wah Primary School to receive government subsidy. The Government also contributed the rent of a flat at 10, Kwai Fong Street.
The fact that there were many poor children living in such a densely populated district as Shaukeiwan alerted the attention of the Tung Wah Group. With the assistance of the Hospital Consultant, Lee Yau Chuen, helped by the Government allocation of crown land in Tung Tai Street and by the Man Mo Temple funding the $4,000 construction fee, the Man Mo Temple No. 16 Free School was eventually opened on 13th November.
In 1929, the Chairman, Lo Man Kam, recognizing the limitations of having only one class in each Free School, was eager to expand the schools to include more levels. In order to implement his scheme, the third floors of 246,250 and 252, Des Voeux Road West were taken to combine with the original school premises at the third floor, 248, Des Voeux Road. The school was renamed the Man Mo Temple Western District Free Elemen-tary Primary School.
Later it was suggested that the public office of the Man Mo Temple be converted into school premises. After much discussion, the idea was put into effect by Lee Yau Chuen and Fung Ping Shan, with the earnest support of all the members of the Board. Consequently, a three-storeyed cement building was constructed at 130, Hollywood Road at a construc-tion fee of $13,200. Similarly, the six Free Schools in the Central District and Sheung Wan were combined together to form the Man Mo Temple Central District Free Elementary Primary School. On 8th December, an opening ceremony was presided over by Sir Shouson Chow, Chinese representative on the Legislative Council.
In the same year, the Government allocated the newly-built Mong Yeung School in Wong Nai Chung to the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals. It consisted of three bright classrooms and was large enough to admit 120 pupils. The school was named the Man Mo Temple Wong Nai Chung District Free Elementary Primary School.
During Lo Man Kam's Chairmanship, Dr. Wong Shek To was en-gaged to check the pupils' eyesight. When it was discovered that many pupils suffered from poor eye-sight, the Chairman instructed that a fund be established by the Man Mo Temple for spectacles for pupils of the Tung Wah Free Schools. This was one of the most important provisions related to pupil health care.
In 1930, the Chairman, Leung But Yu, Director Kwok Chan, and others planned a series of school development schemes. The idea, as before, was to combine Free Schools in certain districts in order to facilitated learning and teaching. Financed by the Man Mo Temple by some $60,000, a new four-storey school premises was built in Wanchai at 194,196,198 and 200, Lockhart Road. Also, the three Free Schools offering Arts 5, Arts 11, Arts 13, and the Hung Sing Temple No. 1 School were combined to form the Man Mo Temple Eastern District Free Elementary Primary School. On 17th January, Sir Shouson Chow presided over the opening ceremony.
Managing a primary school for girls and changing the school system.
In 1931, the Chairman, Ngan Sing Kun, acknowledged that, in the past few dedades, efforts had been made only to expand the provision of free schools for boys. No attempts had been made to provide free education for girls. He took the initiative, therefore, to set up Free Schools for girls. Financed by the Kwong Fuk Temple, a girls' Free School, named Kwong Fuk Temple Girls' Free Elementary Primary School was established at 285-287, Queen's Road West, 4th Hoor, admitting 65 girls. In addition, the Kwong Fuk Temple also contributed $1,500 as the school fund. Financed by the Directors, another Free School for girls was set up at 201, Hennessy Road, 4th Floor, admitting 50 girls. Since the school was supported by the Directors, it was named the Tung Wah Hospital Directors Free SciiQol for Girls.
At this stage, free education provided by the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals was on track. Until 1939, thanks to the strenuous efforts of the Directors, the Free Schools were developed at a constant pace.
Many Chinese fled to Hong Kong after the Japanese invasion of China. At this time, the population increased from 200,000 to 800,000. Both the medical services and the free education provided by the Tung Wah were in great demand.
In 1940, while Lee Yan Chuen was Chairman, the Hong Kong Govern-ment, for reasons of hygiene, passed a new Education Ordinance, limiting the number of pupils in each school. Under these circumstances, the
471
Directors, with a view to expanding free education for the poor, intro-duced the bi-sessional system to all their schools. In this period, as many as 1,928 pupils were admitted. [Before the new Ordinance was passed, there were 1,184 pupils; when the restriction on numbers was imposed, only 964 pupils were admitted.] This was the first time for the Free Schools in Hong Kong to introduce the bi-sessional system.
To expand free education to workers and those who wanted to spe-cialize in a particular trade, the Directors suggested opening evening schools. Therefore, six evening schools specializing in different subjects were opened. They included industry, commerce, domestic science, ele-mentary Chinese, and elementary English (two schools offered this sub-ject). Altogether, 220 pupils were admitted in the Evening Free Schools. In this period, there were 12 Free Schools, 8 for boys, 4 for girls, located in the Central District, Sai Ying Pun, Wanchai, Wong Nai Chung, Shau Kei Wan, and Yau Ma Tei. This was the general picture of the Free Schools run by the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals up to the outbreak of the war.
(b) An Introduction to All the Schools run by the Lok Sin Tong (translated from the Chinese).
Lok Sing Tong Primary School
School Address: 63 Lung Kong Road, Kowloon City
Development: The original name of the school was Kowloon Lok Sin Tong Free School. The present name was adopted only in 1978. Being aware of the poor conditions of the neighbourhood and of the fact that a large number of children missed the opportunity to be educated, in 1929, the Directors of our organization decided to establish a Free School for girls near Dai Tit Street, opposite a Japanese Hall. The following year, the school expanded to admit boys also, so that more children could receive education. Up to 1937, thanks to the strenuous efforts of the Directors, Wong Bun Fu, Lee Sung Sing, and Chan Cho Chak, the school organiza-tion developed quickly, with a student population of over 300. At that time, the principals of the school were Wong Mon Fun and Hui Hei Yan. On 8th December, 1941, the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong began. Hong Kong was then occupied by the Japanese for three years and eight months. During that time, the school had to be suspended ...
27. Family history.
The second, later snapshot (Illus. 5.7) from a family album43 shows the same profes-
43. The first snapshot appears as Illus. 1.5 on p. 83.
EDUCATION IN HONG KONG - PRE-1841 TO 1941
Illus. 5.7 The Headmaster, his assistant and pupils of an unregistered school in the 1930s.
sionally qualified graduate teacher running the same unregistered school at Hill Street, Hong Kong, with a different, slightly larger group of pupils and an assistant teacher.
Obviously, the school was a going concern, but the head teacher restricted its growth for several reasons, including the amount of usable space in the rented premises and his determination to be selective about his intake, which was focused largely upon commercial families.
28. Enrolments at 'English' and 'Vernacular7 Schools, 1914-1938. (Illus. 5.8)
The main problem about the statistics used to produce the following graph arises from the tendency of Government compilers of educational statistics to switch between 'total enrolments' and 'average attendance' (normally an appreciably lower figure). In this period, the figures for the Government and Grant schools tend to refer to average atten-dance and the figures for the private schools to total enrolment. With these reservations, it is possible to use the graph to detect and query fundamental trends.
Enrolments/Average Attendance, 1914-1938
100000 -90000 -
/
80000 -
/ 1
^—-^ /
70000 -
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ / English Schools
60000 -/ '
Av. attendance/ Vernacular Schools
50000-
Total Enrolment
/ \ / '
k
Total Enrolmcnts/Av.
X \ / /"*
40000 -
/ ^ / Attendance
30000 -20000 -5 '— /
^^.~s .‧ ‧
.‧‧ .‧‧‧‧‧ ‧ ‧‧
10000 -
— —*~ ‧‧ ' ‧*
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 H
1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Year
4^
Illus. 5.8 Enrolments at 'English' and 'Vernacular' Schools, 1914-1938.
EDUCATION IN HONG KONG - PRE-1841 TO 1941
29. Photographic evidence.
The first photograph shows the Central District and Mid-Levels of Hong Kong Island in about 1922 (Illus. 5.9a). The sites and buildings of Queen's College (Aberdeen Street) and Belilios Public School (Gough Street) are quite conspicuous.
The second photograph shows an atypical schoolroom of the period (Illus 5.9b). It is taken from a family album and depicts the daughters of Sir Henry May, Governor of Hong Kong, 1912-19, in the schoolroom of 'Mountain Lodge' at the Peak, in about 1915.
The third photograph is also from a family album and shows Diane May selling tulips at the Ministering Children's League Bazaar in the grounds of Government House on 11 November 1916 (Illus 5.9c). Obviously, the Governor's children were prepared to 'do their bit' during the First World War for a deserving charity on behalf of the much more disad-vantaged young in Hong Kong.
The fourth photograph shows Sir Henry May opening the new building of the French Convent School (also known as St. Paul's Convent School) at Causeway Bay, Hong Kong, on 6 October 1916 (Illus. 53d).
The fifth photograph is of the entrance to a leading Anglican Grant School for Girls (Illus. 5.9e). It was taken in 1923.
Illus. 5.9a The Central District and Mid-Levels of Hong Kong Island in about 1922.
Illus. 5.9b The daughters of Sir Henry May, Governor of Hong Kong, 1912-1919, in the schoolroom of 'Mountain Lodge' at the Peak, in about 1915.
Illus. 5.9c Diane May selling tulips at the Ministering Children's League Bazaar in the grounds of Government House on 11 November 1916.
J
1 ‧'"'
Illus. 5.9d Sir Henry May opening the new building of the French Convent School at Causeway Bay, Hong Kong, on 6 October 1916.
Illus. 5.9e The entrance to a leading Anglican Grant School for Girls in 1923.
30. The shaping of a 'System'.44
A simple input/output diagram may help to summarize the principal developments in Hong Kong education in the inter-war period, at least from a macro-level (Illus. 5.10).
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
MAY FOURTH MOVEMENT, GROWING CHINESE NATIONALISM INFLUX OF POPULATION
NQN-PROFESSIONAL ADMINISTRATION BURNEY REPORT
THE
EDUCATIONAL
"SYSTEM"
LITTLE CURRICULUM RECOGNITION OF THE
CHANGE NEED FOR PLANNING
VERNACULARIZATION
WIDESPREAD CRITICISMS OF EDUCATION IN HONG KONG
POLITICIZATION INCREASED ATTENTION TO OF SCHOOLING TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL EDUCATION
Illus. 5.10 The shaping of a 'System'.
44. Like all diagrams, Evidence 30, in its attempts to condense and emphasize key factors, leaves itself open to the criticism that it over-simplifies. Readers may wish to consider (a) to what extent Hong Kong's 'system' of education resembled a closed box by 1941, (b) whether the 'red tape' contributed constructively to the whole package, (c) what were the other major inputs to and outputs of the 'system' in the period 1914-39, and (d) how the situation immediately before the Japanese occupation in 1941 is related to educational developments in the earlier periods.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. PRIMARY SOURCES
There seems little point in merely repeating the detailed bibliographical refer-ences included in the Evidence sections of the various chapters, but the principal archival collections consulted were:
Annual Reports of the Director of Education, 1914-39.
The Beginning Learner's Textbook (in Chinese), edition approved by the Ministry of Education, China, distributed by Chan Sheung Kee, Hong Kong, n.d., but pre-Re-public.
Board of Education (Great Britain), Educational Systems of the Chief Crown and Possessions of the British Empire, including Reports on the Training of Native Races
(Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol. 14) (London: H.M.S.O., 1905).
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INDEX
Aberdeen Trade School, 348,355 Ad hoc Committee of 1847,145 Addis, C.S., 39 Adult education, 202,206 Advice as regards Instruction, 190 Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, 344,352,355,408 Agencies, multiplicity of, 71-72 American missionaries, 144 Anglo-Chinese schools, 345, 352, 355-56,359,407 Annual grant, 144,146, Anonymous pamphlets, 1877,33,34-35, 359,407 Art, 359 Arts and crafts, 356 Asile de la Sainte Enfance, 7, 17-18, 145,309-18,325,326 Attendance, 72-78, 192, 217, 221, 222, 251,254,263,270,349,398,473 Attitudes, about language, 31,223-24,225-26 Headmasters', 38-39,319-38 nationalistic, 341^13,347 of British in Hong Kong, 372,461 of Chinese community, 205, 236-37, 272 of early Chinese population of Hong Kong, 139,141,142,168,182,224 of European community, 156-57, 179,205 of European teachers, 466 of missionaries, 128-32, 139, 141, 176^-78 of parents, 140, 217, 227, 228, 232, 233,235 of pupils, 226-27 pragmatic, 68-69,196,205,217, 224, 225 towards Hong Kong, 33
Barlow, R.C., 282 Basel Mission, 215 Bateson Wright, George, 49, 213, 217, 218,219,280,319,332-33 Baxter, Miss Sophia Harriet, 150, 152, 153,189 Belilios Public School, 200,214,296,349, 354,402 Belilios Scholarships, 212 Belilios, E.R., 208 Bi-sessional system, 471 Bible reading, at the Central School, 222 Board of Chinese Vernacular Primary Education, 220,345,354 Board of Education, 149,150,151,153, 180,185-^87,195,203,222,224,347, 348,349,354,404 Board of Education, China, 453 Board of Examiners in Chinese for Government officers, 209 Boarders, 411-32 Bong-ban, 47,140 Books, 22,26,224,265-69 Bosman, Walter, 328 Botanical garden, 152 Bowley, F.B.L., 283 Bowring, Sir John, 141,184 Boy Scout movement, 61,219,220 Brewin, A.W., 215,275,324,325 British Government, 276,398 Brown, the Rev. S.R., 9,20,143,161-63, 165-^67 Brunyate, Sir William, 396 Bureaucratization, 202-203 Burney Report, 344, 355-57, 360, 403-408 Burney, E., 344,355,357,358,407
Cadet officers, 404,464 Cadet scheme, 177 Caine, Col. William, 8,146
Cambridge Local Examinations, 212 Canossian Sisters and their schools, 150, 229, 244,358 Cartoons, 84,85,138,338,339 Censorship of local English language press, 397-98 Central School, 33-34,35,36,37,44,45, 142, 150, 151, 152, 198, 203, 206, 207,208,210,211,212,213,221-22, 224-27,232,233,234,235,238-40, 243, 245-46, 248 Scholarships, 209 Centre-periphery problems, 3 Ch'en Jung-kun, 347,466 Chamberlain, Joseph, 216,217,276 Chan Chiu Mei, 469 Cheng, F.T., 39 Cheng, T.C., 6,338,453 Child Labour, 348,349,372-95,396 suggested prohibition of 254-55,263 Chinese language, 2,3, lln, 16, 19, 20, 21-22,26, 2S-29,31,32, 38,41^7, 49, 66, 69, 94-95, 96-99, 129, 130, 131, 132-33, 138, 141n, 145, 147, 149, 151,152, 155, 162, 164, 168, 173, 175, 177, 180, 182, 183, 184, 206,208,216,220,221-22,224,226, 227, 233, 234, 237n, 239, 265, 268-69,276,278,282,289,290-93, 298n, 300-308, 320, 326, 332, 341, 344, 345, 347, 348, 351, 352, 354, 355-57, 359, 364-65, 370, 371-72, 399, 400-401, 402, 405-406, 407, 409, 410-11, 436, 444, 451-52, 454-60,463,464,467,468,471,477 Children's School, 144,146 China Mail, 180,218,230,273,278^80 Chinese population, nature of, in early Colonial period, 140,181-83 Chinese pupils, attitudes towards, 21-22,34,321-22 Chinese Recreation Club, 220 Chinese Repository, 87, 128-31, 143, 161-67 Chinese School, illustration of, 194
Chinese schoolbooks, Committee on compilation of, 209 Chinese schools, 67,87-92,143,194,195, 209,282^83,289-93,339,405,409, 433-35, 452-53, 454^60, 462-64, 467,468-71 Chou-Wang-Erh-Kung College, 88 Chow, (Sir) Shou-son, 348,394,399,401, 403,469 Chronicle section of book, Overview of periods, 15 Purpose of, 12 Chung Wah Shu Yuen, 371,402, see also Confucian Middle School Church Missionary Society, 176,188 City Hall, 207,354 production of 'H.M.S. Pinafore', 294 City Hall Museum, dispute over open-ing hours, 204,236-37 Class-size, 351,397 Classroom conditions, 32, 36,129,132, 154, 155, 163, 194, 232, 282-83, 405-406 Clementi Middle School, 351, 354, 399, 402 Colonial Development and Welfare Act, 361 Colonialism, 2-3, 5, 14, 33-34, 48, 69, 139,173,177,180,185-87,236-37, 245,269-70,272-75,276^83,298n, 300-301,308,319-38,341-43,361 and alienation, 167, 227 as cultural imperialism, 2, 3, 48, 166-67,221-27 Commentary section of book, purpose of, 12 Commission on the Industrial Employ-ment of Children, 348,349,372-95 Commission for Overseas Chinese Af-fairs, 353,354,453 Committee of Enquiry (1917) into teach-ing of English language, 346 Committee of Supervision, 145, see also Education Committee Communist influences on schools, 353
Compradore, 196-97 Compulsory education, 224,229, 255-56,263,265,341,348,372, 388-89,390,391-92 Concerts, 24,156,165,179 Confucian Middle School, 351,371, 402 Confucian Society, 371 Control, over Kuomintang influences, 352, 40CM01,450 over schools, 27,30,177-78,180, 181,185,186-87,195,202-203, 204-205,220-21,283-89,310, 345,346,351,398-99,400-403 Cree, Edward, 153-54 Cricket, 147,194 Cultural desert, allegation, 153,156, 394 Curriculum, 11,12,16,22,23,26,28, 36-38,39,41,43,50,87,88,90, 92,95,96-99,129,131,133,138, 145,147,149,151,152,166-^67, 168,173,178,180,190,198,205, 206,208,209,2l0,216,221-26, 237,238-40,241-42,246,256, 258,260,265-69,282,283, 299-308,311,313,314,320,334, 344,346,348,352,356-57,358, 404,405-406,407,408,410-11, 451,452,457,459-60,463,467, 477 political ramifications, 38
Davis, Sir John, 7,144n, 145n, 168, 169-72,187 Deng Fuxie, see Tang Fu Hsieh Dent & Co., collapse (1867), 196n, 207 Department of Education, University of Hong Kong, 346 Depression in the 1930s, influence of, 343 Dialects, 182 Diocesan Boys7 School, 47,51,52-65, 189,240,272,325-26,409,410-11
Diocesan Girls' School, 149,189,220 Diocesan Home and Orphanage, 244 Diocesan Native Female Training School, 149,151,152,189-91, 207-208,248 Diocesan Schools, 198 Director of Education, 203,219,281, 341,344,345,346,347,349,355, 357,358,360,366,368,370,371, 390,396,404,408,444 Discipline, 27,34,129,221,321-23, 401,451 District Schools, 203,212,214,216,260 Dixon's Hong Kong Recorder, 179 Documents, destruction of, 5 Dual system, 203,216,219
Early childhood education, 49-51,130, 206,215, 260,264,349,350,434 Eaton, Miss Mary Winefred, 150n, 152, 189,190-91 Economy, 195-96,343,398,400 Education, 'folk-stream' of, 195 concept of, 30-31,205,223,224-25, 226 demand and supply of, 363-66, 396-97 objectives of, 189,190 'system', 338-39,341,477 value of, 223-24 Education Commission (1880-^82), 211, 212,237-40 Education Commission Report (1882), 212,237-40 Education Committee, 26,142,143, 145,146,147,148,149,174, 180-81,184-85,187 Education Committee (1901-1902), 216 Education Committee Report (1902), 203,205,216-17,275-76 Education Conference (1878), 203,210, 234 Education Department, 49,83,152, 153,187,203,206,219,221,251,
255,260,262,338,339,354,347, 350,353,358,360n, 365,366,372, 396,407,408,433,435,453
Education Ordinance (1913), 83, 195, 203,204,205,220-21,283-89,341, 360,366,467 revision of, 360,470
Education Tax, 224,255,256,263
Educational reforms in China, 351-53, 403,458-59 Educational statistics, unreliability of, 72-73, 79,193,293,472 Educational system, 338-39, 341, 435, 477
Educational technology, 92,108,180
Eitel, E.J., 4, 5,6, 8n, 14,15, 39,87, 88n, 139n, 140n, 143n, 146, 149, 150n, 152n, 159, 162n, 168, 173, 176n, 184, 189, 199n, 200n, 203n, 209, 210, 212, 214, 215, 235-36, 247, 249n, 250, 262, 263-65, 269-70, 323-24
Elite, Chinese and Eurasian, 188, 196-97,299,343 development of, 188
English language, 2, 19, 35, 36-37, 38, 39,44,50,51,69-70,147,148,149, 152, 162, 164, 166, 167, 170, 175, 179, 183, 186-87, 189, 190, 191, 197n, 202n, 206,210,211,214,216, 220, 221-22, 224-25, 227, 228, 231-34, 237-40, 241-42, 244, 247-50, 253, 256-57, 261, 265-67, 278,295,300-308,311,314,319-21, 332, 335, 341, 344, 345, 346, 347, 356-57,359,363,355,367-69,406, 408,410-11,451,452,457,460
Enrolment figures, 72-78, 192, 215, 217-18,293,472-73 Entrance Examination, 66,207,220,221, 346,359,452
Errors produced and reinforced by the Government Education Depart-ment, 9-10, 72-73, 79, 193, 293, 472
Ethnic and social tensions, 70, 140-41, 200n,202n, 203,272-75 Eurasian children, education of, 152, 189,207,235,244,248
European population, nature of in early Colonial period, 139,141,182,197 Evening Continuation Classes, 202n,
218,219 Evening Institute, 358 Evening schools, 248,353,471 Evidence sections of book, purpose of,
12-14 Evolution, Darwin's theory of, 203-204, 283 Examination question, samples of, 36-38 Examination successes, 89, 91, 93-94, 110-11
Examination system, 126-27, 128, 147, 151,164,206,207,212,213,292-93, 354,358,359
Extraneous influences, 2,173,196, 205, 343
Face, 68,71,465 Fact and opinion, role of, 1,2,3,14 Family history, 13, 83-84, 105-106,
471-72 Fees, 65,152,187,217 Females,
education of, 43, 128,130,149, 150, 188-89, 200n, 206, 207, 213, 214, 222-23, 227, 234-36, 242, 247-50, 254,326
in Hong Kong society, 234-36 Feminism in China, 348 Footnotes in book, purpose of, 14 Forster Act, 9,209 Forster, Professor Lancelot, 342, 353,
407,461-64 Francis, J.J., 231 Free Schools, 67, 289-93, 353, 371-72,
468-71 for Girls, 353,470-71 French Convent, 7,17,244,409,412, see
also St. Paul's Convent, and Asile de la Sainte Enfance
French Convent School, 244, 309-18, 409,412-32,476
The Friend of China and Hongkong Ga-zette, 23-25,179-80 Fu Jen Literary Society, 201n, 214,271n Fung Ping Shan, 348,402,469 Fung Ping Shan Library, 352
Gazetteer (1819), 88n, 90n, 100-104, 135-37 Government, distrust of, 213n, 270 expenditure on education, 25-26,30, 33, 73, 74-78, 79-S2, 169-72,175, 179,208,345,355 policy, 210,265,274-75,275-78,341, 346,351,355,362-66,369-70,371, 396-97,408 responsibilities for education, 3, 33-34, 47-48, 168-72, 179, 181, 184-85,186,195,203,204-208,232, 234,274,275-76,341,344,345,347, 355-57, 362-66', 369-70, 371-72, 396-97,399,402,435 Government Central School for Girls, 214 Government Girls' School, 222-23 Government officials, 2, 8, 48, 88, 91, 95,141,341,354 Government Primary Vernacular School, 357-58 Government scholarships, 212,216,279, 324,328,358 Government school for Chinese chil-dren in Kowloon, 275 Government school for European chil-dren in Kowloon, 217,275 Government schools, 2, 8, 27, 66, 148, 149, 150, 151, 203, 346, 351, 359, 367,396,397 Government subsidies, 2,144,216,279, 347, 348, 358, 361, 397, 398, 405, 435,467,469
increased for Vernacular schools, 348,358,361 Government Tai Po Vernacular Nor-mal School, 351 Government Trade School, 358 Government Training College, 359 Government Vernacular Middle School, 351,354,399,402 Grant Code, 10, 203,209, 211, 217, 293, 345-46,349,360 Grant School system, largely aban-doned for Chinese schools, 348 Grant schools, 195, 210, 211, 260-61, 265-69,293,349,356,358,360,397, 409,472,474,476 Grant Schools Council, 460 Gutzlaff, Karl (or Charles), 25, 33, 47, 144
Half-yearly examinations, 147 Handwork, 359 Handyside,W.L.,407 Health Code for private schools, 357 Heep Yunn College, 358 Hennessy, Sir John Pope, 210,211,212, 231,232-33,236,237,245,320 Hidden curriculum, 11,90,92 Ho Kai, (Sir) Kai, 7n, 213,216,275 Ho Tung, (Sir) Robert, 215, 216, 274, 275,321,326,348 Ho Tung, Lady Clara, 7n, 353 Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, 200,213,244^7 objectives of founders, 245 Hong Kong Cricket Club, 147,193 Hong Kong Daily Press, 271 Hong Kong Island, 9,15,19,25,27,33, 87, 88, 91, 93, 102, 105, 139, 143, 149,159-61,164-65,178,182,184, 186,292,361,433,467,474 Hong Kong Public School, 208,210 Hong Kong Teachers' Association, 355, 361 Hong Kong Technical College, 358 Hong Kong Tennis League, 219
Hong Kong True Light Primary School, 355
Hong Kong University Education Journal,
353,354,463,450-60 Hong Kong University Education Soci-ety, Free Night School, 353 Houston, T.J., 464 Huang Shih, 93 Hutchins, the Rev. Dr. R.S., 191 Hygiene, 282-83,308,344,354,360,406, 463,470
Illustrations in book, purpose of, 14 Imperial factors in plans for Univer-sity, 278,280 Index of book, possible uses of, 14 India, comparison with, 249-50,253 Industrial school, 348 Industrial workers, education of, 353 Informal (or non-formal) education, 24-25,90,92,108-109,112,114-17, 119,236-37 Inspection, avoidance of, 3, 173n, 195, 222,282 Inspector of Schools, 2, 4, 8, 9, 30, 36, 117, 148, 150, 151, 152, 168, 180, 184, 185, 186, 187, 203, 209, 210, 214, 215, 216, 219, 224, 231, 250, 265, 269, 277, 293, 347, 353, 355, 356,357,358,360,396,398 Inspector of vernacular schools, 353, 356,398 Intelligence tests, 356,359 Interpreters, need for, 69,141-42n, 177, 178,179,180,181,183 Irving, E. A., 9-10,49,203,215,216,275, 277, 341, 345, 346, 348, 349, 361, 372,396,451 Italian Convent and Sisters, 150, 229, 244, 307, 325, see also Canossian Sisters and their schools
Jockey Club, 212 Johnson, F.B., 234,239 Joset, Mgr. Theodore, 143 Junior Technical School, 354
Kadoorie, Sir Ellis, 202n, 326,336,397 Kai Fongs, 339,371 Kam Tin, 88n, 89,90,93,105,117-27 Kidnapping, 143,210,211 Kindergartens, 49-51,215,260,264,349 King George V School, 217 King's College, 214n, 349,351,352 King's Park, 215 Kotewall, (Sir) Robert, 348,399-403 Kowloon, 51, 61, 66, 87, 88, 91, 93, 94, 140, 201, 206, 209, 215, 216, 217, 260, 269, 270, 275, 282, 291, 292, 321,322,326 Kowloon British School, 201,217,321 Krone, the Rev. R., 132 Kung Sheung Yat Po, 398,400-401
La Salle College, 353 Language factor, 10, 14, 26, 31, 69-70, 145, 150, 162, 166, 177, 180, 182, 183,185,186,187,189,221-22,223, 226, 227, 228, 231-34, 300-301, 320-21,341,345,346,347,352,354, 356,357,406,408,436,451,452 Lau Chu Pak, 346,348,468 Leadership, educational, 357 Lee Wing-kwong, 370 Lee Yau Chuen, 348 Legge, James, 9, 17n, 19, 88, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 158, 162n, 174,175,176-77,178-80,183, 185-87,188,319,323-24 Li-ying College, 87,88,89,93,105 Lindsell Committee on Teacher Educa-tion, 359 Lo Hsiang-Lin, In, 88n, 117 Lo, (Sir) Man Kam, 243,469,470 Lobscheid, W., 8, 9n, 27-30, 148, 150, 185,186 LokSinTong,471 London Missionary Society, 17,19-20, 49, 142, 143, 148, 158, 167n, 209, 220
Lowcock, H., 232,234 Lowe, Robert, 191-92 Lucky tally, 292 Lugard, Sir Frederick, 219,280,281 Lung Chun Yi Hok (or Lung-chin Free School, Kowloon City), 88,91,94
Macau, 9,143 MacDonnell, Sir Richard, 31,199n, 208, 226 Man Mo Temple, 174, 176, 211, 290, 291,292,468,469,470 Man Mo Temple Free School, 211, 290, 291 Manson, Patrick, 244 Maps, 102-104,159-61 Maryknoll Convent School, 350,358 Maryknoll Sisters, 351 Maryknoll Sisters' School, 351 Matriculation examinations, 345, 354, 356,358,436 Medical examinations for school chil-dren, 346,347,351,436 Medical Faculty, University of Hong Kong, 200n, 370-, 442-44 Medical Officer of Schools, 351,436 Medical School for the Chinese, Hen-nessy's suggestion, 233 Medium of instruction, 10, 20, 69-70, 198, 226, 231-34, 341, 356, 359, 407-408,452 Missionaries, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,15,16,17, 18,19-20,21-22,23,25,26,27,39, 48, 49, 69, 72, 74-75, 88, 91, 94, 128-32, 138, 139-42, 143-53, 158-59, 162n, 163, 168, 169-72, 173-78,181-84,187,188,189,191, 192, 195, 198, 203, 208, 209, 215, 220,228,235,245,247,250,278 Model syllabus for vernacular schools, 352 Mody, H.N., 208,219,337-38 Montessori, influence on Hong Kong early childhood education, 49,50 Morrison Education Society, 9, 20-22,
131,143,144,158,161 library, 207 Morrison Education Society School, 9, 20-22, 131, 142, 143, 146, 161-62, 163-67,174,175,177,183 site and building of, 143,163 Morrison Hill, 143,174,193 Morrison, J.R., 19,163 Morrison, Robert, 19,163 Mui-tsai, 255-56,263,395 Munsang College, 51,66,351,361 Music, 24-25, 156, 164, 179, 183, 209, 356,359
New History, 12-14 New Territories, 87,88,90,93,100,105, 110-13,117-27,132, 206, 216,281, 341,357,359,361,364,433-35 Ng Choy, 196n, 236-37,239,240 Noise in the classroom, 14,32,129 Normal School, 199,211, 212, 348,351, 371 Northcote Training College, 344,359
Objectives of this work, 4,5,6,12-14 Oral history, 13,51,66,464-66 Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission, 353,354,453 Overseas Chinese Education Commit-tee, 351 Overseas Education Planning Commit-tee, 352 Oxford Local Examinations, 213, 261, 331 Ozorio, C.E. de Lopes e, 212
Parents' pragmatic attitude, 27, 217n, 224,227, 228 Pari-passu system, 220,346,436,451 Paternalism, 2-3,68,289,370-72 Payment by Results, 192n, 204,269,217 Penang, 191 Periodization, 15,195,206 Petitions (1901), 197-98n, 201n, 215 Physical education, 114-16, 138, 150,
EDUCATION IN HONG KONG - PRE-1841 TO 1941
161-62,212,344,352,358,359,408 Physical Training class for teachers, 352,
358 Plague, 215,269-70 Play, children's, 112 Playgrounds, 112,272 Po Kok Free School, 353 Po Leung Kuk, 204,210,214,289 Polemical literature, 10,33-35,228-31 Police Schools, 208 Political considerations, 2, 198n, 203,
204,270-71,289 Politics in schools, 198n, 220, 270-71, 283,287,289,350,401-403,407 Population, 135-37,139-40,179,181-83,
195,341,343 Portuguese community, 230 Pottinger, Sir Henry, 17,143,167-68 Pre-apprenticeship training, 354 Pre-British Hong Kong, 1,87-138 Pre-Chinese Hong Kong, 87 Press,
local (general), 23-25, 158, 179-30, 397-98 local (Chinese language), 209, 237, 397-98,400-401
local (English language), 23-25, 128-32, 158, 179-80, 240, 271-74, 278-30,283,370-72,397-98
Price, J.M., 36,234
Primary education, 48-50, 82, 92, 100, 173, 207, 220, 344, 345, 352, 355, 397-98,405-406,407,452,454-60, 467,468-71
Primary schools, 25,49,66,71,143,144, 289-93,351,355,357,462-63
Private schools (general), 28, 66, 149, 195,204,208,220-21,276,282-83, 344, 345, 351, 352, 355, 356, 397, 405-406,409,433-35,451,453,463, 467,472
Private vernacular schools, 28, 66,149, 220,276,282-83,347,405,406,409, 433-35,467
Professionalization, 203 Professor of Education, 396,407,461
Propaganda, anti-British, 398-400 in schools, 204,289,345 pro-Government, 398,400-401
Protected Malay States, comparison of Hong Kong with, 265
Public Gardens, 152,236-37
Pui Ching Middle School, 354
Pupil health care, 311,346-47,351,360, 436,470 spectacles, 470
Pupils, 2,8,15,21-22,30,32,34,38,52, 74-78,83,85,128-29,147,154,155, 162,164-67,183,186,225,226-29, 232-34, 243, 272-74, 293, 296-97, 321-23, 350, 401^03, 405-406, 413-32,451-52,461,472 age of, 129,130,210,219,406 records of physical history, 360
Queen's College, 38-39, 49, 203, 215, 216,217-18,219,220,240,274,276, 293,295,296-97,298,326-32,346, 350, 407,461,474, see also Central School, and Victoria College
Queen's Recreation Ground, 215 Questions in Commentary section of book, 13,92-93,142,205-206,345 purpose of, 13-14
Racial discrimination, 47-48,197n, 201n, 236-37, 272-77, 321-22, 362-67, 372,397
Ragged schools, 185
Raimondi, Bishop Timoleone, 149,211, 228,229-30
Reformatory, 152,198,202n, 208,229-30
Religious question, 7-9, 203-204, 207-11,228-31
Respect for Scholars, 70-71
Revised Grant Code (1879), 204,211
Revised Grant Code (1914), 345-46
Rhodes Studentships, 361
Rivalry between British and American
educational efforts, 370 Robinson, Sir Hercules, 178 Robinson, Sir William, 264,324,330 Rockefeller Foundation, 348-49 Roman Catholic schools, 143,144,145, 146, 149, 150, 152, 153, 209, 211, 228-31 Roman Catholic opposition to first Grant Code, 209 Rote-learning, 21-22,28,31,41,129-32, 168,233,234,322,405 Rowell,T.R.,10 Rules, 27,240,243 Ryrie, Phineas, 208,210,234
Sayer, G.R., 344,408 Scholarships, 100, 209, 212, 216, 279, 324,328,359 School Certificate Examination, 353, 354,356,358 Syllabus revision, 358 School day, 152,162,183,185,227,234, 240-42,345,409-11 School gardening, 355 School life, 240,243,310-18,409-32 School magazines, 51, 212, 240, 409, 413-32 School of Chinese Studies, 352 School rules, 240,243 School timetables, 240-42,409-11 Schools, see under individual school-names unregistered, 83,472 Seamen's Strike, (1922) 341,396 Secondary education, 48, 207, 352,356, 358,451 Secondary schools, 49, 66, 71, 295-98, 309-18,319-36,358,359,361,368, 369,401,402,407,409-32,433-35, 436,451,461,466,474,476 Secretary of State for the Colonies, 3,7, 26,167,211,216,232,250,264-65, 275-77,352,355,367,395,398,404 Secularist movement, 148,228 Self-strengthening Movement, 196,208,
228 Shuck, J.L., 23,161,294 Sin Sui Study Hall, 94,108-109 Singapore, comparison of Hong Kong with, 179,233,352 Sinologues, group of, 48^9 Smale, Sir John, 210,235-36 Smith, Albert, 153,155 Smith, George, 146, 147, 150, 177-78, 181-84,194,248,319 Social fragmentation, 70,141,157,179, 341-43 Society for the Promotion of Female Education in the East, 50n, 188 Sollis,CG.,358,360 South China Morning Post, 283,370-72 Ssu-shu, 92,94,112-13,466-67 St. Andrew's School, 148,149 St. Joseph's College, 150,198, 212, 244,. 325,326,333-35 St. Louis Reformatory and School, 34, 152,198,208,228,229 St. Louis' College, 152 St. Mary's Canossian College, 358 St. Paul's Co-educational College, 346 St. Paul's College, 66,146,147,153,161, 175,184,198,207-10,244,295,325, 335-36 St. Paul's Convent School, 145n, 409, 474 St. Paul's Girls' College, 346,401 St. Paul's Girls' Secondary School, 145n St. Paul's Magazine, 409,413-32 St. Saviour's College, 150, 153, 206, 209-10,229,326 St. Stephen's College, 51,66,201,202n, 217,219,326,463 St. Stephen's Girls' College, 218, 401, 476 St. Stephen's Preparatory School, 218 Stanton, the Rev. Vincent, 143,144,145, 169-71,173-74 Statistics, 72-78,135-37,192,293,472-73 Stewart, Frederick, 30-31,32-33,35,38, 71n, 142, 151-53, 178, 193, 199,
206-10, 221-27, 228, 231, 232-34, 239, 264,272n,321-23,327-28 Stokes, G., 8n, 36, 38,151n, 199n, 218n, 220n, 297n, 298n Straits Settlement, comparison of Hong Kong with, 347 Strike and Boycott (1925-26), 341, 343, 350,397,398^03 Stubbs, Sir Reginald Edward, 371, 373,
395,398-99 Study halls, 94,108-109,112-13 Study-groups, 200,214,271n Subsidy Code, 358,361,405 Sung Hok-P'ang, In, 88n, 90n, 93n, 105,
117-27 Supervision, need for, 36,283-89 Swimming, 212,220,360
. Tang family, 93-94,105-13,117-27 Tang Fu Hsieh (or Tang Foo), 93,105 Tang Siu Kin, 469 Tarrant, William, 23,157-59 Teacher education, 36, 71, 147, 199,
202n, 206,211-12,218,225-26,237, 297,344,346,359,367-69,435 by correspondence course with China, 360
Teachers, qualities of, 3, 49-51, 70-71, 84-^5, 173, 180-81, 223, 232, 237, 405,453,466
Teachers' salaries, 50,129,330,453,463, 464
Teaching methods, 21-22,28; 32,44,50, 84, 88, 92, 129-31, 133, 155, 162, 166-67,168,183,190,216,222-26, 232-34, 282-83, 311, 320-21, 405-406,452,455,459-60
Technical education, 69,152,202n, 206, 215,218-19,229,253,262,264,274, 324-25,334-35,348,353,354,355, 357,358,433,435,477
Technical Institute, 202, 218-19, 325, 352,358 Textbooks, 26, 84, 95, 99, 146, 166-67, 265-69,271,290,292,352,405,407,
455,468 Three Principles of the People (or San Min Chu I), teaching of 352,403 Trade schools, 229, 344, 353, 355, 358, see also Technical Education
Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, 211, 233n, 245, 289-93, 294, 299, 352, 370-72,468-71
Tung YiTong, 66-67
University in Hong Kong, lack of, at beginning of twentieth century, 274 proposal to establish, 218-20,278-31, 336-38 University (1937) Committee, 358,
436-50 University Commission (1920), 347 University Development Committee,
359-60
University of Hong Kong, 202,207,219, 220, 346, 347, 348, 352, 353, 354, 357,358,359-60,361,367-69,370, 396,401,435,436-50,465-66
Vernacular education, 3,195, 216, 217, 220,222-24,276,343,344,345,348, 352,355-56,358,369-370,370-72, 398-99,402
Vernacular Normal School for Men, 348, 351 Vernacular Normal School for Women, 348,351,354
Vernacular schools, 203, 214, 215, 216, 219, 220, 224, 253, 259, 260, 276, 277, 282-^3,288-92,347,348,351, 352,354,355,357,365,369,398-99, 401^02,405-406,409,433-35,453, 454-60, 462-64, 466-67, 468-72, 473, see also Chinese schools
Victoria British School, 218 Victoria English School, 208,210,240n,
see also Hong Kong Public School Victoria College, 240n, 244,256-59,264 Victoria Technical School, 354
Village schools, 7, 87, 145, 154, 155, 159-61, 207, 209, 212, 222-24, 462-64 Vocational schools, 433,435 Voluntarism, 153 Voluntary associations, 66,176,289-93, 468-71
Wah Kin YatPo, 400 Wah Yan College, Hong Kong, 347 Wah Yan College, Kowloon, 349 Wang Chung-yu, 273-74 WangT'ou,33 Weatherhead, Alfred, 153,155-57 Wells, the Rev. H.R., 220,346,372,380, 388-89
White Paper on Colonial Welfare and Development, 361 White, G., 355
Xin'an County, 87,90,100-104,132-34
Yellow Dragon, 240,243 Yeung Chu Wan, 270-71 Yin and Yang, 1 Ying Wa College (or the Anglo-Chi-nese College), 9,19,142,143,144, 148,174,175,220 Ying Wa Girls School, 215 Yuen Long Public Middle School, 357
Zoological (and Botanical) Gardens, 152